Spatial Reogranization

Spatial Reorganisation: a Model and Concept D. Janelle, 1969 - - Travel-time connectivity is also a good measure of the relative advantage of a given place in attracting to itself the centralization and specialization of human activity Measure of friction of distance seems essential in a study of central place development Structure (the areal arrangement of earth-space phenomena) and process (the arrangement of these phenomena) are one and the same things Blaut – “structure of the real world are simply slow processes of long duration” Inherent of this view is the implicit existence of a temporal pattern in each and every spatial pattern Spatial Reorganization – the process by which places afapt both the locational structure and the characteristics of their social, economic and political activities to changes in time-space connectivity (the time required to travel between desired origins and destinations) - For example, as Fox noted, for the food industry due to the advances in transportation, adaptation has moved towards larger more distantly spaced establishment, with the abandonment of the corner grocery store in favour of the supermarket Locational Utility – simply a measure of value - Wolpert – the decision to migrate that utility is inherently individualistic, thus place utility is an individuals subjective measure of the degree to which the opportunities at a particular place permit his perceived or actual achievement level to be in as close as possible accordance with his aspiration level - In contrast to place utility, locational utility is defined in a context which in part overlooks the individualistic and subjective connotation of value o It is a measure of utility of specific places or areas, which in this case is defined by the aggregate time expenditure (cost of effort) in transport required for the place or area to satisfy its operational needs o Operational need refers to those natural and human resource requirements which permit the place or area to fulfil its functional roles in the large spatial system of places and areas - Spatial variance in the locational utility for a system of places mat be characterized by is surfaces of utility o In a given spatial system there exists one surface for each of the many possible functional rose to be performed o Once the surface of utility has been described, one can then focus attention on a more significant problem, - the dynamics of surface change  For example the depletion of or the discovery of a resource which is an operational need for the success of a given economic activity would alter the utility surface for that activity and could necessitate the selection of a new production site o It is evident that innovations which speed transportation will also lead to changes in the utility surface Are these innovations and certain distributive forces leading towards greater equilibrium in the utility surface and thus possibly towards a more homogeneous distribution of man’s socioeconomic activities? Or do transport improvements and certain agglomerative forces leaf to increasing spatial variance in locational utility and this towards greater place-concentration of human enterprise?  o Concepts integrated into the model: 1. Demand for accessibility 2. Transport innovations 3. Time-space convergence 4. Spatial adaptations – centralization and specialization 5. Spatial interaction Demand for Accessibility - Measure of the ease (time, cost or effort) in which transfer occurs between the places and areas of a system - Demand for accessibility really then is a quest to decrease the transport effort expended per unit of operational success or very simply to augment locational utility (greater operational success can be derived per unit of time-expenditure from a given place) Transport Innovations - Any technologies or methods which serve to increase accessibility between places or which permit an increase in the quality of goods or the - number of passengers that can be moved between these places per unit of time A transport innovation may be a new and faster type of carrier, improved trafÏc routing produces, better gasoline, improved lighting for night travel, the straightening of angular routes . . . o All resulting in time-space convergence Time-Space Convergence - As a result of transport innovations, places approach each other in timespace; the travel time required between places decreases and distance declines in significance Spatial Adapations to Changes in Time-space Organization - The spatial adaptations of man’s activities to their changing time-space framework will lead to the centralization and specialisation of secondary and tertiary economic activates in specific places and as it frequently the case, to the specialization of primary economic activities in the resource orientated hinterlands of these places - Centralization (of which urbanization is a form) refers to the increasing focus of human activity upon a particular places o It results in the growth of an economically, culturally and sometimes politically integrated area over which this particular place is dominant - The economics that result when the scale of an economics, political or cultural endeavour is increased at a particular place or in a particular area are generally considered to be the motivating forces behind centralization o As a rule, increased scale permits lower per-unit production or operation costs – unless diminishing returns set in - Specialization (of which industrialization is a form) develops when places or areas concentrate their efforts of particular activities at the expense of others - The most intense concentration of any given economic activity will (or at least should) be in a locale having a comparative advantage relate to other places and areas - A less favour place should choose to specialize in that activity for which it has (relative to the rest of the system) a least comparative advantage - The surfaces of locational utility dictate the specialities of place and areas - Suburbanization is a form of de-centralization o Proves an alternative response to time-space convergence which is not treated in this basic model o Improvements in individual mobility have made it possible for some families and for some firms to trade off central accessibility for the amenities associated with suburban life and industrial parks - The basic model indicates that an increase in interaction results between places and areas that experience increasing centralization and specialization o As tertiary activities centralize within given places, it is necessary for those places to inter- act in the forms of products, service, and information exchange with their resource- oriented hinterland o Similarly, if central places concentrate on a given type of economic activity or, if resource- oriented areas specialize in a specific form of primary activity (e.g., wheat or iron ore), it is necessary for them to trade and exchange with one another so that they can attain those needs or desirable items that they themselves do not produce - - - It is likely that the operational success of these places can only be continued though increased costs – maintenance and constant innovation to try and evolve further Consequently, the increasing interaction that results from centralization and specialization leads to further demands for increased accessibility, greater degrees of locational utility, and transport innovation Thus the spatial reorganisation of human activities is perpetuated in what, theoretically is a never ending and accelerating cycle o Notion of multiplier effect or positive feedback implies the state of a system (that is the degree of convergence between interacting settlements, their demands for accessibility and so forth) at a give time is determined completely from within the system Thus positive feedback system, as indicated by the completed circuit in the basic model is self perpetuating Studies by Coverdale and Colpitts show that improvements in highway facilities result in trafÏc volumes greater than the number accounted for by the diverted trafÏc o New facilities will attract more trafÏc than would be expected had the previous facilities continued to operate alone  Induced TrafÏc Evaluation of the Basic Model - Some of the assumptions of the model lack complete accord with reality Varying conceptions of Utility and Time - Whereas the basic model is based on an objective measure of locational utility (time- expenditure), it was indicated earlier that utility is inherently individualistic; that is, it is perceived according to one’s values, goals, and technical and institutional means of living o It is likely that the criteria for utility are based on factors other than just the expenditure of time - Also apparent that man’s perceived value of a given unit of time has increased as the tempo of his activities has increased o This component is not recognized within the model o Man is motivated to seek greater utility for his expenditure of time - With faster and more distant travel opportunities resources can be drawn upon or requested as they’re needed rather than having to store them up for months to come o E.g if New York City had to store all the food it needed for the winter months - There is the additional likelihood that a person’s perception of the utility of time will differ for various travel purposes o E.g spending an hour to travel to a specialist doctor but not to go and get groceries - No model of the process of spatial reorganization could account for all of the multitudinous goals and criteria of all persons, places, and areas, and the changing value of time for each Basic Assumption: Rationality in Human Place-Behaviour Principal assumption of the spatial reorganisation model is that man is rational 1. Man has perfect knowledge They are aware of all their operational needs and of all the possibilities for fulfilling these needs 2. Man has no uncertainty – he has perfect predictability Thus the rational place foresees the time-space convergence that will result from any transport innovation; it foresees the degree of increased interaction that will be derived from greater centralization and specialization of its activities 3. Man is interested only in maximising the utility of time at a give place This permits the necessary spatial reorganisation to augment the operational success of places. Net social benefits – whether economic, political or cultural – could be substituted for operational success Limitations and Omissions of the Model - There may be lags or delays in the process resulting from man’s inefÏcient behaviour his slowness in adapting the spatial organization of human activity to its changing time-space framework, or his slowness in introducing more efÏcient forms of transportation - It is also possible that improvements in transfer technology will lag behind the need for such development An Expanded model of Spatial Reorganisation - If restraints of rationality breaks down and the demand for land is introduced, the basic model breaks down - In reality places don’t always seek to maximise their degree of locational utility and in many cases find it impossible to do so - Thus if there is no demand for increased accessibility in response to increases in interaction or if there is no technology available for meeting demand for greater accessibility, then it is likely that either trafÏc congestion, route deterioration or both will occur o This in turn would lead to time-space divergence - The demand for land or space is a form of decentralization – a direct consequence of the centralization and specialization associated with timespace convergence - Land for industrial activity for factories and warehouses and such is scarce and expensive in central areas, but is comparably more in abundance and affordable in the peripheries o Jobs created by this expansion may increase the population attraction power of places and lead to further demands for land - Another factor leading for people to decentralize comes as people may want to leave the noisy, congested and polluted environment of a city, as interaction has accelerated beyond a tolerable threshold Decentralized Centralization and the Expansion of the City - Because the land available for expansion is generally peripheral to that portion of the city area which is already developed, the new and relocated establishments (residents, retail and service firms, and so forth) find themselves at a time-disadvantage in attaining goods and services that are only offered in the central core of the city o To obliviate this people seek better transport links to and from the city or encourage the location of new establishments in the city’s peripheral area to serve and employ them o E.g large out of town shopping centres and industrial parks - May owe to Man’s desire to reduce the number of trips or distance of movement required needed to attain a given quantity of goods and services Made possible by grouping many functions at one centre – nucleation of activities – eventually leading to even greater demand o Thus, in this manner, the sub-region finds itself in a new stage of areal rearrangement-it is operative within the basic model of spatial reorganization and will develop greater centralization and specialization (starting the whole cycle again) In the absence of planning, it is evident that decentralization is merely an intermediate or lag-stage in the general process (described by the basic model) leading towards an expanded area of centralization and specialization o - Evaluation of the Expanded Model - Accounts for what happens when the degree of rationality is lessened or when the criteria of rationality change - Permits the consideration of the spatial consequences to the alternative demands of either accessibility or space - Spatial re- organization is not operative everywhere to the same degree and it does not occur simultaneously at all points in earth space o It is essential to determine why this process is so selective and why some places undergo a more rapid areal reorganization than other The Process of Spatial Reorganisation and the Concept of Relative Advantage - Will happen most rapidly in places that seek to gain the greatest advantage from increasing accessibility - Transport innovations are most likely between those places which will benefit most from a lessening in the expenditure of time (cost or effort) to attain needed and desirable goods and service - Where is man most likely to introduce transport improvement? Conclusion The objective of this study has been three fold1. To conceptualize the role of transport technology as a key factor in the spatial reorganization of man’s activities 2. To outline the “steps” in the process of spatial reorganization 3. To propose a conceptual framework that accounts for the differential operation of this process at various place - Man adapts the areal structure of his activities in response to changes in transport technology which enable him to travel faster and to have access to larger areas and to more resources Time-space conversion is a significant factor leading towards spatial adaption Spatial reorganization will accelerate most rapidly at those places which stand to benefit most from increasing accessibility However, in light of the limitations posed by the assumption of rationality, it is evident that the concept of relative advantage, as applied to the process of spatial reorganization, is not in complete accord with reality o The decisions of man, however, are often conditioned by his lack of information, or non-maxima goal