The Best Psychology Cheat Sheet

● Psychology is derived from physiology (biology) and philosophy ● EARLY APPROACHES o Structuralism – used INTROSPECTION (act of looking inward to examine mental experience) to determine the underlying STRUCTURES of the mind o Functionalism – need to analyze the PURPOSE of behavior ● APPROACHES KEY WORDS o Evolutionary – Genes o Humanistic – free will, choice, ideal, actualization o Biological – Brain, NTs o Cognitive – Perceptions, thoughts o Behavioral – learned, reinforced o Psychoanalytic/dynamic – unconscious, childhood o Sociocultural – society o Biopsychosocial – combo of above ● PEOPLE: o Mary Calkins: First Fem. Pres. of APA o Charles Darwin: Natural selection & evolution o Dorothea Dix: Reformed mental institutions in U.S. o Stanley Hall: 1st pres. of APA1st journal o William James: Father of American Psychology – functionalist o Wilhem Wundt: Father of Modern Psychology – structuralist o Margaret Floy Washburn–1st fem. PhD o Christine Ladd Franklin – 1st fem. ● EXPERIMENT : Adv: researcher controls variables to establish cause and effect Disadv: difficult to generalize o Independent Variable: manipulated by the researcher ▪ Experimental Group: received the treatment (part of the IV) ▪ Control Group: placebo, baseline (part of the IV) ▪ Placebo Effect: show behaviors associated with the exp. group when having received placebo ▪ Double-Blind: Exp. where neither the participant or the experimenter are aware of which condition people are assigned to o Dependent Variable: measured variable (is DEPENDENT on the independent variable) ● Operational Definition: clear, precise, typically quantifiable definition of your variables – allows replication ● Random Assignment: assigns participants to either control or experimental group at random – minimizes bias, increase chance of equal representation ● Random Sample: method for choosing participants – minimizes bias ● Validity: accurate results ● Reliability: same results every time ● NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: Adv: real world validity (observe people in their own setting) Disadv: No cause and effect ● CORRELATION: Adv: identify relationship between two variables Disadv: No cause and effect (CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION) o Positive Correlation – Variables vary in the same direction o Negative Correlation – variables vary in opposite directions o The stronger the # the stronger the relationship REGARDLESS of the pos/neg sign ● CASE STUDY: Adv. Studies ONE person (usually) in great detail – lots of info Disadv: No cause and effect ● DESCRIPTIVE STATS:shape of the data o Measures of Central Tendency: ▪ Mean: Average (use in normal distribution) distribution) ▪ Mode: occurs most often ● INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: establishes significance (meaningfulness) Significant results = NOT due to chance ● ETHICAL GUIDELINES (APA) o Confidentiality o Informed Consent o Debriefing o Deception must be warranted ● NEURON: Basic cell of the NS o Dendrites: Receive incoming signal o Soma: Cell body (includes nucleus) o Axon: AP travels down this o Myelin Sheath: speeds up signal down axon o Terminals: release NTs – send signal onto next neuron o Synapse: gap b/w neurons ● Action Potential: movement of sodium and potassium ions across a membrane sends an electrical charge down the axon o All or none law: stimulus must trigger the AP past its threshold, but does not increase the intensity of the response (flush the toilet) o Refractory period: neuron must rest and reset before it can send another AP (toilet resets) ● ● ● S ensory neurons – receive signals A fferent neurons – A ccept signals Motor neurons – send signals E fferent neurons – signal E xits ● ● CENTRAL NS: Brain and spinal cord ● PERIPHERAL NS: Rest of the NS o Somatic NS: Voluntary movement o Autonomic NS: Involuntary (heart, lungs, etc) ▪ Sympathetic NS: Arouses the body for fight/flight (generally activates) ▪ Parasympathetic NS: established homeostasis after a sympathetic response (generally inhibits) ● NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NTS): Chemicals released in synaptic gap, received by neurons o GABA: Major inhibitory NT o GlutamatE : Major E  xcitatory NT o Dopamine: Reward & movement o Serotonin: Moods and emotion o Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory o Epinephrine & Norepinephrine: sympathetic NS arousal o Endorphins: pain control, happiness o Oxytocin: love and bonding ● Agonist: drug that mimics a NT ● Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT ● Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back up into the sending neuron. SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) block reuptake – treatment for depression ● AREAS OF THE BRAIN: ● Hindbrain: oldest  part of the brain o Cerebellum – movement  (what does it take to ring a bell) o Medulla – vital  organs (HR, BP) o Pons – sleep/arousal  (Ponzzzzzz) ● Midbrain o Reticular f ormation: attention  (if you can’t pay attention, You R F’d) ● Forebrain: higher  thought processes o Limbic System ▪ Amygdala: emotions, fear (Amy, da! You’re so emotional!) ▪ Hippocampus: memory  (if you saw a hippo on campus you’d remember it!) o Thalamus: relay  center o Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure center, eating behaviors o Broca’s Area: Inability  to produce speech (Broca – Broken speech) o Wernicke’s Area: Inability  to comprehend speech (Wernicke’s what?) o Cerebral Cortex: outer  portion of the brain – higher order thought processes ▪ Occipital Lobe: located  in the back of the head - vision  making, ▪ Frontal Lobe: decision planning, judgment, movement, personality ▪ Parietal Lobe: located on the top of the head - sensations ▪ Temporal Lobe: located  on the sides of the head (temples) – hearing and face recognition ▪ Somatosensory Cortex: map  of our sensory receptors –in parietal lobe ▪ Motor Cortex: map  of our motor receptors – located in frontal lobe o Corpus Callosum: bundle  of nerves that connects the 2 hemispheres – sometimes severed in patients with severe seizures – leads to “split-brain patients” ▪ Lateralization: the  brain has some specialized features – language is processed in the L Hemisphere ▪ Split-brain experiments: done  by Sperry & Gazzanaga. ▪ Images shown to the right hemisphere will be processed in the left (& vice versa), patient can verbally identify what they saw ● BRAIN PLASTICITY: Brain can “heal” itself ● NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER IS BOTH o Twin Studies: Identical twins – Monozygotic (MZ) Fraternal twins – Dizygotics (DZ) o Genetics: MZ twins will have a higher percentage of also developing a disease o Environment: MZ twins raised in different environments show differences ● ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: sends hormones throughout the body o Pituitary Gland: C  ontrolled by hypothalamus. release growth hormones o Adrenal Glands: related to sympathetic NS: releases adrenaline ● ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD: detection of signal 50% of time (is it there) ● DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD (also called a just noticeable difference (JND) and follows WEBER’S LAW: t wo stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion. (Can you tell a change?) ● SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY ● Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation (can you feel your underwear?) ● Perceptual Set: tendency to see something as part of a group – speeds up signal processing ● Inattentional Blindness: failure to notice something b/c you’re so focused on another task (gorilla video) ● Cocktail party effect: notice your name across the room when its spoken, when you weren’t previously paying attention ● VISUAL SYSTEM: o Pathway of vision: light → cornea →pupil/iris → lens → retina → rods/cones → bipolar cells → ganglion cells → optic nerve → optic chiasm → occipital lobe o Cornea – protects the eye o Pupil/iris – controls amount of light entering eye o Lens – focuses light on retina o Fovea–area of best vision(cones here) o Rods – black/white, dim light o Cones – color, bright light o Bipolar cells – connect rods/cones and ganglion cells o Ganglion cells – opponent-processing occurs here o Blind spot – occurs where the optic nerve leaves the eye o Feature detectors – specialized cells that see motion, shapes, lines, etc. (experiments by Hubel & Weisel) ● THEORIES OF COLOR VISION: o Trichromatic – three cones for receiving color (blue, red, green) ▪ Explains color blindness - they are missing a cone type o Opponent Process – complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells – explains why we see an after image ● Visual Capture: Visual  system overwhelms all others (nauseous in an IMAX theater – vision trumps vestibular) ● Constancies: r ecognize that objects do not physically change despite changes in sensory input (size, shape, brightness) ● Phi Phenomenon: adjacent lights blink on/off in succession – looks like movement (traffic signs with arrows) ● Stroboscopic movement: m  otion produced by a rapid succession of slightly varying images (animations) ● MONOCULAR CUES (how we form a 3D image from a 2D image) o Interposition: overlapping  images appear closer o Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually similar in size, the smaller one is further away o Relative Clarity: h azy objects appear further away o Texture Gradient: c oarser objects are closer o Relative Height: t hings higher in our field of vision look further away o Linear Perspective: parallel  lines converge with distance (think railroad tracks) ● BINOCULAR CUES: (how both eyes make up a 3D image) Retinal Disparity: Image  is cast slightly different on each retinal, location of image helps us determine depth  yes strain more (looking Convergence: E inward) as objects draw nearer ● TOP-DOWN PROCESSING: Whole → smaller parts ● BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING: Smaller Parts →   Whole ● AUDITORY SYSTEM: o Pathway of sound: sound → pinna → auditory canal →ear drum (tympanic membrane) → hammer, anvil, stirrup (HAS) → oval window → cochlea → auditory nerve → temporal lobes o Outer Ear: pinna (ear), auditory canal o Middle Ear: ear drum , HAS (bones vibrate to send signal) o Inner Ear: c ochlea – like COCHELLA (sounds 1st processed here) ● THEORIES OF HEARING: both occur in the cochlea o Place theory – location where hair cells bends determines sound (high pitches) o Frequency theory – r ate at which action potentials are sent determines sound (low pitches) ● OTHER SENSES: o Touch: Mechanoreceptors →   spinal cord → thalamus → somatosensory cortex o Pain: Gate-control theory: we have a “gate” to control how much pain ix experienced o Kinesthetic: Sense of body position o Vestibular: Sense of balance (semicircular canals in the inner ear effect this) o Taste (gustation): 5 taste receptors: bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory) o Smell (olfaction): Only sense that does NOT route through the thalamus 1st. Goes to temporal lobe and amygdala ● GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: Whole is greater than the sum of its parts Gestalt Principles: ▪ Figure/ground: organize information into figures objects (figures) that stand apart from surrounds (back ground) ▪ ▪ Closure: tendency to mentally fill in gaps ▪ Proximity: tendency to group things together that appear near each other ▪ Similarity: tendency to group things together based off of looks ▪ Continuity: tendency to mentally form a continuous line ● STATES of CONSCIOUSNESS: o Higher-Level: controlled processes – totally aware o Lower-Level: automatic processing (daydreaming, phone numbers) o Altered States: produced through drugs, fatigue, hypnosis o Subconscious: Sleeping and dreaming o No awareness: Knocked out ● METACOGNITION: Thinking about thinking ● SLEEP: Beta Waves: awake Alpha Waves: high amp., drowsy Stage 1: light sleep Stage 2: bursts of sleep spindles Stage 3 (delta waves: Deep sleep Stage 4: extremely deep sleep Rapid Eye Movement (REM): dreaming Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM occurs inb/w each cycle. REM lasts longer throughout the night ● ● CIRCADIAN RHYTHM: 24 hour biological clock o Body temp and awareness change due to this o Controlled by the Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the brain o Explains jet lag ● SLEEP DISORDERS o Insomnia: Inability to fall asleep (due to stress/anxiety) o Sleep walking: (due to fatigue, drugs, alcohol) o Night terrors: extreme nightmares – NOT in REM sleep – typical in children o Narcolepsy: fall asleep out of nowhere (due to deficiency in orexin) o Sleep Apnea: stop breathing suddenly while asleep (due to obesity usually) ● DREAM THEORIES: o Freud’s Unconscious Wish Fulfillment: Dreaming is gratification of unconscious desires and needs Latent Content: h idden meaning of dreams Manifest Content: o bvious storyline of dream ● Activation Synthesis: Brain produces random bursts of energy – stimulating lodged memories. Dreams start random then develop meaning ● HYPNOSIS o It Can: Reduce pain, help you relax o It CANNOT: give you superhuman strength, make you regress, make you do things against your will ● PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS: o Triggers dopamine release in the brain o Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, opiates (narcotics) Decrease sympathetic NS activation, highly addictive o Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine, MDMA (ecstasy), Caffeine, Nicotine Increase sympathetic NS activation, highly addictive o Hallucinogens: LSD, Marijuana Causes hallucinations, not very addictive o Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects o Dependence: Become addicted to the drug – must have it to avoid withdrawal symptoms o Withdrawal: Psychological and physiological symptoms associated with sudden stoppage. Unpleasant – can kill you. ● CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV! o Unconditioned Stimulus (US): brings about response w/o needing to be learned (food) o Unconditioned Response (UR): response that naturally occurs w/o training (salivate) o Neutral Response (NS): stimulus that normally doesn’t evoke a response (bell) o Conditioned Stimulus (CS): once neutral stimulus that now brings about a response (bell) o Conditioned Response (CR): response that, after conditioning, follows a CS (salivate) o Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, NS/CS must be presented immediately BEFORE the US o Acquisition: process of learning the response pairing o Extinction: previously conditioned response dies out over time o Spontaneous Recovery: After a period of time the CR comes back out of nowhere o Generalization: CR to like stimuli (similar sounding bell) o Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS ● CONTINGENCY MODEL: Rescorla & Wagner – classical conditioning involves cognitive processes ● CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION (ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): John Garcia – Innate predispositions can allow classical conditioning to occur in one trial (food poisoning) ● COUNTERCONDITIONING: Little Albert and John Watson (father of behaviorism) – conditioned a fear in a baby (only to countercondition – remove it- later on) ● OPERANT CONDITIONING: SKINNER! O LAW OF EFFECT (Thorndike): Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken a behavior (cat in the puzzle box) ● PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT COND: O Pos. Reinforcement: Add something nice to increase  a behavior (gold star for turning in HW) O Neg. Reinforcement: Take away something bad/annoying to increase a behavior (put on seatbelt to take away annoying car signal) O Pos. Punishment: Add  something bad to decrease a behavior (spanking) O Neg. Punishment: Take away something good to decrease  a behavior (take away car keys) O O O O O O O O O Primary Reinforcers: innately satisfying (food and water) Secondary Reinforcers: everything else (stickers, high-fives) Token Reinforcer: type of secondarycan be exchanged for other stuff (game tokens or money) Generalization: respond to similar stimulus for reward Discrimination: stimulus signals when behavior will or will not be reinforced (light on means response are accepted) Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery: same as classical conditioning Premack Principle: high probability activities reinforce low probability activities (get extra min at recess if you everyone turns in their HW) Overjustification Effect: reinforcing behaviors that are intrinsically motivating causes you to stop doing them (give a child 5$ for reading when they already like to read – they stop reading) Shaping: use successive approximations to train behavior (reward desired behaviors to teach a response – rat basketball) Chaining: tie together several behaviors Continuous Reinforcement schedule: Receive reward for every response O Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X number of response (every 10 envelopes stuffed get $$) O Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks get a paycheck) O Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded after a random number of responses (slot machine O Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded after a random amount of time has passed (fishing) O Variable schedules are most resistant to extinction (how long will keep playing a slot machine before you think its broken?) ● SOCIAL (OBSERVATIONAL) LEARNING: BANDURA! ● Modeling Behaviors: Children model (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo dolls to demonstrate the following O Prosocial – helping behaviors O Antisocial – mean behaviors ● MISC LEARNING TYPES O Latent learning (Tolman!) – learning is hidden until useful (rats in maze get reinforced half way through, performance improved O O O Cognitive maps – mental representation of an area, allows navigation if blocked Insight learning (Kohler!) – some learning is through simple intuition (chimps with crates to get bananas) Learned Helplessness (Seligman!) – no matter what you do you never get a positive outcome so you just give up (word scrambles)  ENCODING: Getting info into memory ● Automatic encoding – requires no effort (what did you have for breakfast?) ● Effortful encoding – requires attention (school work) ● Shallow, intermediate, deep processing: the more emphasis on MEANING the deeper the processing, and the better remembered ● Imagery – attaching images to information makes it easier to remember (shoe w/ spaghetti laces) ● Self-referent encoding – we better remember what we’re interested in (you’d remember someone’s phone number who you found extremely attractive) ● Dual encoding – combining different types of encoding aids in memory ● Chunking – break info into smaller units to aid in memory (like a phone #) ● Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us remember info easier o Acronyms – using letter to remember something (PEMDAS) o Method of loci – using locations to remember a list of items in order ● Context dependent memory – where you learn the info you best remember the info (scuba divers testing) ● State dependent memory – the physical state you were in when learning is the way you should be when testing (study high, test high) STORAGE: Retaining  info over time ● Information Processing Model – Sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory model ● Sensory Memory – stores all incoming stimuli that you receive (first you have to a pay attention) o Iconic Memory – visual memory, lasts 0.3 seconds o Echoic Memory – auditory memory, lasts 2-3 seconds ● Short Term Memory – info passes from sensory memory to STM – lasts 30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items o Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets the clock ● Working Memory Model splits STM into 2 – visual spatial memory (from iconic mem) and phonological loop (from echoic mem). A “central executive” puts it together before passing it to LTM ● Long term memory – lasts a life time o Explicit (Declarative): Conscious recollection ▪ Episodic: events ▪ Semantic: facts o Implicit (Nondeclarative): unconscious recollection ▪ Classical conditioning ▪ Priming: info that is seen earlier “primes” you to remember something later on (octopus, assassin, climate, bogeyman) ▪ Procedural: skills ● Memory organization o Hierarchies: memory is stored according to a hierarchy o Semantic networks: linked memories are stored together o Schemas: preexisting mental concept of how something should look (like a restaurant) ● Memory storage o Acetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus for most memories o Cerebellum for procedural memories o Long-term potentiation: neural basis of memory – connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of neurons) RETRIEVAL: Taking info out of storage ● Serial Position Effect: tendency to remember the beginning and the end of the list best ● Recall: remember what you’ve been told w/o cues (essays) ● Recognition: remember what you’ve been told w/ cues (MC) ● Flashbulb memories: particularly vivid memories for highly important events (9/11 attacks) ● Repressed memories: unconsciously buried memories – are unreliable ● Encoding failure: forget info b/c you never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the first place (which is the real penny) ● Encoding specificity principle: the more closely retrieval cues match the way we learned the info, the better we remember the info (like state dependent memory) ● Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten (EBBINGHAUS) thus cannot easily think about the past) developed by WHORF THINKING ● Concepts: mental categories used to group objects, events, characteristics ● Prototypes: all instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example (what you first think of) ● Algorithms: step by step strategies that guarantee a solution (formula) ● Heuristics: short cut strategy (rule of thumb) o Representative Heuristic: make inferences based on your experience (like a stereotype) – assume someone must be a librarian b/c they’re quiet o Availability heuristic: relying on availability to judge the frequency of something (over estimating death due to plane crashes due to recent events) ● Functional Fixedness: keep using one strategy – cannot think outside of the box ● Belief bias: tendency of one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions ● Belief perseverance: tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face on contrary evidence ● Inductive reasoning: data driven decisions, general →   specific ● Deductive reasoning: driven by logic, specific →   general ● Divergent thinking: ability to think about many different things at once ● Proactive interference: old info blocks new ● Retroactive interference: new info blocks old ● Misinformation effect: distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation (Loftus – lost in the mall, Disney land) ● Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves forward (forget new info – 50 first dates) ● Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves backwards (forget old info) ● ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE: caused by destruction of acetylcholine in hippocampus LANGUAGE ● Phonemes: smallest unit of sound (ch sound in chat) ● Morpheme: smallest unit that caries meaning (syllable) ● Grammar: rules in a language that enable us to communicate ● Semantics: set of rules by which we derive meaning (adding –ed makes something past tense) ● Syntax: rules for combining words into sentences (white house vs casa blanca) ● Babbling stage: infants babble 1st stage of speech ● One-word stage: duh ● Two-word stage: duh duh ● Theories of language development: THEORIES OF MOTIVATION o Imitation: Kids repeat what they hear – but they don’t do it perfectly ● INSTINCT: complex behaviors have fixed patterns and are not learned (explains ▪ Overregularization: grammar mistake where children over use animal motivation) certain morphemes (I go-ed to the ● DRIVE REDUCTION: physiological need park) creates aroused tension (drive) that o Operant conditioning: reinforced for motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by language use homeostasis: equilibrium) o Inborn universal grammar: theory o Primary drive: unlearned drive based comes from NOAM CHOMSKY – on survival (hunger, thirst) says that language is innate and we are o Secondary drive: learned drive (wealth predisposed to learn it or success) o Critical period: period of time where ● OPTIMUM AROUSAL: humans aim to something must be learned or else it seek optimum levels of arousal –easier tasks cannot ever happen (language must be requires more arousal, harder tasks need less learned young – Genie the Wild Child) o Linguistic determinism: language  influences the way we think (Hopi people do not have words for the past, o Bulimia: usually normal body weight, go through a binge-purge eating pattern (eat massive amounts, then throw up) Causes: same as anorexia SEXUALITY ● Biology of sex: o Hypothalamus: stimulation increases sexual behavior, destruction leads to sexual inhibition o Pituitary gland: monitors, initiates, and ● HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: theory derived restricts hormones by MASLOW – needs lower in the pyramid Males – testosterone have priority over needs higher in the Females - estrogen pyramid o Sexual Response Pattern: Excitement phase, plateau, orgasm, refractory period ● Intrinsic motivation: inner motivation – (resolution phase) (cannot “fire” again you do it b/c you like it until you reset, guys only) ● Extrinsic motivation: motivation to obtain o Alfred Kinsey: 1st researcher to conduct a reward (trophy) studies in sex, suggested that people were very promiscuous. Studies lacked a representative sample, created scale of homosexuality o Homosexuality: biological roots: differences in the brain, identical twins more likely to both be gay, later sons more likely to be (hormones from mom) HUNGER ● Signals of hunger: o Stomach contractions tell us we’re hungry o Glucose (sugar)  level is maintained by the pancreas (endocrine system). o Insulin decreases glucose. Too little glucose makes us hungry. o Orexin is  released by the hypothalamus – telling us to eat. o Other chemicals include ghrelin, obestatin, and PPY o Lateral hypothalamus: when stimulated makes you hungry, when lesioned you will never eat again. (I’m LATE for lunch. I’m hungry. The LATEral hypothalamus makes you hungry.) o Ventromedial hypothalamus: when stimulated you feel full, when destroyed you eat eat eat eat (fat woman and cake) o Leptin: leptin signals the brain to reduce appetite ● Obesity: o Increased risk of heart attack, hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes o Can be genetic – adopted children resemble their biological parents o Set point: there is a control system that dictates how much fat you should carry – every person is different ● Eating Disorders: o Anorexia: weight loss of at least 15% ideal weight, distorted body image Causes: overly critical parents, perfectionist tendencies, societal ideals o Exhaustion: body/you cannot take any more, give up ● Type A Personality: rigid, stressful person, perfectionist. At risk for heart disease ● Type B Personality: laid back, nonstressed. INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCH ● Industrial / Organizational Psych: psychological of the workplace – focuses on employee recruitment, placement, training, satisfaction, productivity ● Ergonomics / Human Factors: intersection of engineering and psych – focuses on safety and efficiency of human-machine interactions ● Hawthorne effect: productivity increases when workers are made to feel important ● Theory X management: manager controls employees, enforces rules. Good for lower level jobs ● Theory Y management: manger gives employees responsibility, looks for input. Good for high level jobs ● Employee Commitment: o Affective: emotional attachment (best type) o Continuance: stay due to costs of leaving o Normative: stay due to obligation (they paid for your school) ● Meaning of Work: o Job – no training, just do it for $$. No happiness o Career – work for advancement. Some happiness o Calling – work because you love it. Lotsa happiness THORIES OF EMOTIONS ● JAMES-LANGE: stimulus →physiological  arousal → emotion ● CANNON-BARD: stimulus → physiological arousal & emotion simultaneously ● SCHACTER TWO FACTOR: adds in cognitive labeling (bridge experiment) stimulus →   arousal →  interpret external cues →   label emotion ● Some stimuli are routed directly to the amygdala bypassing the frontal cortex (gut ● Prenatal Development: reaction to a cockroach) ● Behavioral factors: there are SIX universal o Zygote: 0 – 14 days, cells are dividing emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, o Embryo: until about 9 weeks, vital surprise, disgust, feat) seen across ALL organs being formed cultures o Fetus: 9 wks to birth, overall ● Non-verbal cues: gestures, duchenne smile development (you can tell a real smile from a fake one) o Teratogens: external agents that can ● Facial feedback hypothesis: being forced cause abnormal prenatal development to smile will make you happier (facial (alcohol, drugs, etc) ▪ Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): large expressions influence emotion) STRESS AND HEALTH amount of alcohol leads to FAS, causes ● GENERAL ADAPTATION deformities, mental retardation, death SYNDROME (GAS): three phases of a ● Physical Development: o Maturation: natural course of stress response (SELYE came up w/ this) o Alarm: body/you freak out in response to development, occurs no matter what stress (walking) o Resistance: body/you are dealing with o Reflexes: innate responses we’re born stress with ▪ Rooting, sucking, swallowing, grasping, stepping o Habituation: after continual exposure you pay less attention – used to test babies o Eyes have the most limited development, takes till 1 year ▪ Visual cliff: babies have to learn depth perception, so they will cross a “cliff” o Other senses are fairly developed o Brain development continues for a few years ● JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEV. ● Schemas – concepts or frameworks that organize info ● Assimilation: incorporate new info into existing schema (aSSimlation – same stuff) ● Accommodation: adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information (ACcommodation - All Change) ● Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years: focused on exploring the world around them o Lack O  bject Permanence: Objects when removed from field of view are thought to disappear (peek-a-boo) o Dev. Sense of Self: by 2 yrs can recognize themselves in the mirror happens during a critical period (from LORENZ) ● HARRY HARLOW: discovered that contact comfort is more important than feeding (monkeys fed on wire or cloth mothers). Monkeys raised in isolation couldn’t socialize ● MARY AINSWORTH: developed the strange situation paradigm (children left alone in a room w/ a stranger, then reunited w/ mom – determines your attachment style o Secure attachment (60% of infants): upset when mom leaves, easily calmed on return. Tend to be more stable adults o Avoidant attachment (20% infants): actively avoids mom, doesn’t care when she leaves o Ambivalent attachment(10% infants): actively avoids mom, freaks out when she leaves o Disorganized attachment (5%): confused, fearful, dazed – result of abuse ● BAUMRIND: parenting styles o Authoritarian: rules & obedience, “my way or the highway” – kids lack initiative in college o Permissive: kids do whatever – no rules – kids lack initiative in college o Authoritative: give and take w/ kids – ● Pre-operational Stage: 2 – 7 years:  use kids become socially competent and pretend play, developing language, using reliable intuitive reasoning ● KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEV o Lack C  onservation: recognize that o Preconventional morality: Children: substances remain the same despite they follow rules to avoid punishment changes in shape, length, or position (girls o Conventional morality: adolescents: with juice in glasses) follow rules b/c rules exist to keep order o Lack R  eversibility: cannot do reverse o Postconventional morality: adults: they operations (count out both 4+2 and 2+4) do what they believe is right (even if it o Are e gocentric: inability to distinguish goes against society) one’s own perspective from another’s – ● Carol Gilligan: said moral reasoning and think everyone sees what they see moral behaviors are two different things ● Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 yrs:  use (what you say isn’t always what you do) operational thinking, classification, and ● ERIKSON’S SOCIOEMOTINAL DEV. : can think logical in concrete context 8 stages, each stage represents a crisis that ● Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 yrs: u  se must be resolved, results in competence or abstract and idealist thoughts, weakness o Trust vs Mistrust (birth – 18 months) : if hypothetical-deductive reasoning ● Problems with Piaget’s theory : s tages to needs are dependably met infants dev discrete, dev. differs b/w kids basic trust ● VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: cognitive o Autonomy vs shame&doubt (1 -3 yrs): development is a social process too, need to toddlers learn to exercise their will and interact w/ others think for themselves o Zone of Proximal Development: gap o Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs): learn to b/w what a child can do on their own and initiate tasks and carry out plans o Industry vs inferiority (6 yrs to w/ support. Need scaffolding (teachers) puberty): learn the pleasure of applying SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT ● Temperament: patterns of emotional themselves to tasks reactions and babies (precursor to o Identity vs role confusion: (adolescence thru 20s) : refine a sense of self by testing personality) ● Imprinting: baby geese believe the first roles and forming an identity thing they see after hatching is their mom – o Intimacy vs isolation: (20s—40s): f orm close relationships and gain capacity for love o Generativity vs stagnation: (40s-60s): discover sense of contributing to the world, thru family & work o Integrity vs despair: (60s and up): reflect on your life, feel satisfaction or failure ● PUBERTY! (rapid skeletal and sexual maturation) o Primary sex characteristics: necessary structures for reproduction (ovaries, testicles, vagina, penis) o Secondary sex characteristics: nonreproductive characteristics that dev during puberty (breasts, hips, deepening of voice, body hair) o Frontal lobe continuous dev (not fully developed till 25) ● GENDER DEVELOPMENT: sex = chromosomes, gender = what you identify yourself as o Gender roles: expected behaviors (norms) for men/women o Social learning theory: we learn gender roles and identity from those around us ● AGING: o Cellular clock theory: cells have a maximum # of divisions before they can’t divide anymore o Free-radical theory: unstable oxygen molecules w/in cells damage DNA o Over time skills decrease (reaction time, memory) ● CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: studies ppl of different ages at the same point in time o Adv: inexpensive & quick o Disadv: can be differences due to generational gap ● LONGITUDINAL STUDY: studies same ppl over time o Adv: eliminates groups differences, lots of detail o Disadv: expensive, time consuming, high drop out rates ● Stages of Grief (crap btw) o Denial: “this can’t be happening” o Anger: “why me?” o Bargaining: “just let me live to see my kids graduate” o Depression: “why bother” o Acceptance: “its going to okay” ● Problem-focused coping: solving or doing something to alter the course of stress (planning, acceptance) ● Emotion-focused coping: reducing the emotional distress (denial, disengagement) PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATION SIGMUND FREUD said personality was largely unconscious. Came up w/ the following: ● Conscious: immediate awareness of current environment ● Preconscious: available to awareness (phone #s) ● Unconscious: unavailable to awareness ● id: our hidden true animalistic wants and desires – operates on the pleasure principle, all about rewards and avoiding pain (devil on your shoulder – entirely unconscious) ● superego: our moral conscious (angel on your shoulder, all 3 consciousness ) ● ego: reality principle, has to deal w/ society, stuck mediating b/w the id and superego (its you! – conscious and preconscious) When ego cannot mediate b/w the id and superego, we use defense mechanisms ● Repression: push memories back into the unconscious mind (sexual abuse is too traumatic to deal w/ so you repress it) ● Projection: attribute personal shortcomings & faults on to others (man who wants to have an affair accuses his wife of having one) ● Denial: refuse to acknowledge reality (refuse to believe you have cancer) Displacement; shift feelings from an unacceptable object to a more acceptable one (can’t tell at teacher, go home and yell at the dog) ● Reaction formation: transform unacceptable motive into his opposite (woman who fears sexual urges becomes a religious zealot) ● Regression: transform into an earlier development period in the face of stress (during exam week you start to suck your thumb) ● Rationalization: replace a less acceptable reasoning with a more acceptable one (don’t get into your college – justify it was a sucky college anyway) ● Sublimination: replace unacceptable impulse w/ a socially acceptable one (man w/ strong sexual urges paints nudes. Dexter) FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES ● Oral stage (0-18 months ) : pleasure focuses on the mouth (id) ● Anal stage (18 – 36 months) : pleasure involves eliminative functions (ego forms) ● Phallic stage (3 – 6 yrs) : pleasure focuses on genitals (superego forms) o Oedipal complex: young boys learn to identify w/ their father out of fear of retribution (castration  anxiety) o Electra complex: young girls learn to identify w/ their mother b/c they cannot with their father (penis  envy) ● Latency stage (6 yrs to puberty): psychic time out – personality is set ● Genital State (adulthood): sexual reawakening – oedipal and electra “feelings” are repressed, turn sexual wants onto an appropriate person ● FIXATION: can become “stuck” in an earlier stage – influences personality (oral stage smokes/drinks, anal is “anal retentive”, phallic is promiscuous) What’s wrong w/ Freud theory? – unverifiable, descriptive not predictive What’s good about it? – 1st theory about personality, sparked psychoanalysis How do we test this approach? ● Psychoanalysis: analyze a person’s unconscious motives thru the use of: o Free Association: say aloud everythying that comes to mind w/o hesitation o Transference: looks for feelings to transferred to psychoanalyst o Dream interpretation: analyze the manifest (seen message) and latent (hidden messages) content o Projective Tests: ambiguous stimuli shown to look at your unconscious motives (THESE SUCK B/C THEY ARE VERY SUBJECTIVE) ▪ Thematic apperception test (TAT) : tell a story about a picture (when someone has a tattoo (tatt) you ask what it means ▪ Rorschach inkblot: show an inkblot NEO-FREUDIANS ● CARL JUNG: believed in the collective unconconcious ( shared inherited reservoir of memory – explains common myths across civilizations & time) ● KAREN HORNEY: said personality develops in context of social relationships, NOT sexual urges (security not sex is motivation, men get womb envy) TRAIT PERSPECTIVE ● Traits are enduring personality characteristics, people can be described by these – have strong or weak tendencies. They are stable, genetic, and predict other attributes. ● Use factor analysis to find these: statistical procedure used to identify similar components ● TRAIT THEORIES: ● Big Five: (by Costa & McCrae) (acronym OCEAN) You vary on each of these o Openness : imaginative, independent, like variety o Conscientiousness: organized, careful, disciplined o Extraversion: sociable, fun-loving, affectionate (opoosite it introversion: shy, timid, reserved) o Agreeableness: soft hearted, trusting, helpful o Neuroticism (emotional  stability): calm, secure What’s wrong with trait theory? – ignores the role of the situation in behavior What’s good about it? - identifying traits gives us perspectives about careers, relationships, health How do we test this approach? ● MMPI – helpful for mental health and job placement ● Myer’s Briggs – gave you 4 letter combo What’s wrong w/ these tests? ● They’re long, social desirability can be an influence, and they’re too broad HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE ● Emphasized personal growth and free will. You don’t like yourself? So change! ● CARL ROGERS: talked about our self-concept (idea of who we are).  Your self-concept is the center of your personality o Actual (social) self: what others see o Ideal (true) self: who you WANT to be o A positive self-concept makes us perceive the world positively (optimist) o A negative s elf-concept makes us feel dissatisfied and unhappy What wrong with humanistic theory? too optimistic about human nature, abstract concepts are difficult to test What’s good about it? – emphasizes conscious experiences and change ● Individualistic Cultures: give priorities to own goals over group goals. Define your identify in terms of you (American society) ● Collectivistic Cultures: give priority to the goals of the group, your identity is part of that group (China) SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE ● Behavior is a complex interaction of inner process and environmental influence – which influences personality ● Emphasizes conscious awareness, beliefs, expectations, and goals ● BANDURA! Talked about RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM: interaction of behavior, cognitions, and environment make up you. ● m outgoing (behavior) , I choose to teach b/c it lets me be outgoing (environment) , and I have thought this through which is why I teach despite making less money (cognitive)} ● Self-efficacy: belief that one can succeed, so you ensure you do ● Internal locus of control: you control your own fate ● External locus of control: chance / outside forces control your fate What’s wrong with social-cognitive? – Too specific, cannot generalize What’s good about it? – Highlights situations, and cognitive explanations of personality How do we test it? – Observations & interviews (time consuming) Individual Theories about Intelligence ● GALTON: 1st to suggest intelligence was inherited. Intelligence based on muscle strength, size of head, reaction time, etc. ● CATTELL: 2 clusters of mental abilities o Crystalized intelligence: reasoning and verbal skills - what you learn in school – the cold hard (like crystals!) facts o Fluid intelligence: spatial abilities, rote memory, things that come natural to you – can’t learn in school. Also decrease over time ● SPEARMAN’S G FACTOR: said a general intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities (typical IQ of today) ● GARDNER: multiple intelligences (8): linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (self), interpersonal (social), naturalist ● STERNBERG: TRIARCHIC THEORY o Analytical: mental components to solve problems, what IQ tests assess (book smarts) o Practical: ability to size up new situations and adapt to real-life demands (street smarts) o Creative: intellectual and motivational processes that lead to novel solutions, idea, products ● BINET: developed 1st intelligence test, combined with TERMAN – developed the STANFORD-BINET IQ TEST o Chronological age = actual age o Mental age = tested age compared to other of that age o 100 is average ● WECHSLER: developed the WAIS and WISC – most commonly used today ● FLYNN effect: IQ has steadily risen over the past 80 years – probably due to education standards and better IQ tests ● Extremes of Intelligence: high IQ = above 135; mentally retarded = below 70 ● Causes of mild retardation: o PKU – liver fails to produce an ezyme needed to breakdown chemicals – leads to brain damage o Down syndrome – extra copy of 21st chromosome o Fragile X – higher chance in boys due to ONE X chromosome ● Influence on IQ: o Genetics: MZ twins have similar IQ, adopted kids more similar to biological parents o Environment: early neglect leads to lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ ● Types of Tests: o Aptitude: predicts your abilities to learn a new skill (ASVAB) o Achievement: tests what you know(SAT) ● TEST CREATION: o Standardization: administer a test to a representative sample of future test takers to establish a basis for meaningful comparison (test it out 1st) o Should be reliable: same results over time Split-half reliability: compare two halves of the test Test-retest reliability: use the same test on 2 different occasions o Should be valid: test is accurate – measures what it is intended to Content validity: test measures what you want it to (an IQ test actually measures IQ) Predictive validity: test is able to accurately predict a trait (high math scores predicts good engineer) ● Standardized tests establish a normal distribution ● Standard deviations are used to compare scores. ● Standard deviation measures how much the scores vary from the mean. The percentages stay the same in every curve ● Defining abnormal behavior: o Must be deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional ● Historical causes: biology, psychological issues, supernatural issues (demons) ● Medical model: emphasizes treatment of disorders, as they have a biological origin. Came through the reformation of institutions in U.S. (DORTHEA DIX) ● Biopsychosocial model: currently used model – stress biological, psychological, and social causes ● Diagnosing abnormal behavior: o DSM: manual listing all currently accepted psychological disorders. Classifies them based on criteria – provides no explanation of causes or treatments ANXIETY DISORDERS Most common disorders in the U.S. ● Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): person is generally anxious, all the time, for NO REASON ● Panic Disorder: person is prone to frequent panic attacks (feeling like you’re having a heart attack). Can come w/ agoraphobia: anxiety about being in places you cannot escape (fear of public spaces / people) ● Phobias: irrational fear that disrupts your life ● Obsessive-compulsive Disorder (OCD): person if overwhelmed with both: o Obsessions: persistent unwanted thoughts (did I leave the stove on?) o Compulsions: senseless rituals (hand washing) ● Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): characterized by flashbacks, problems w/ concentration, and anxiety following a traumatic event (war, natural disasters) CAUSES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS: ● Psychodynamic: repressed thoughts & feelings manifest in anxiety and rituals ● Behaviorist: fear conditioning leads to anxiety, which is then reinforced. Phobias might be learned through observational learning ● Biological: natural selection favored those with certain phobias (heights). Twins o ften share disorders. Often see less GABA in the brain SOMATOFORM DISORDERS ● Psychological disorders w/ no apparent physical cause ▪ Disorganized thinking o Conversion disorder: loss of feeling or ▪ Disorganized speech usage of a limb or body part (sight) – o Negative Symptoms (something taken absolutely no physiological cause though away) o Hypochondriasis: person interprets ▪ Flat affect: lack ability to show normal symptoms as a major disease – emotions must disrupt their life DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS ▪ Impaired decision making, inability to pay attention ● Dissociative Identity Disorder: formerly multiple personalities – person fractures into o Catatonia: become frozen over periods of time (exhibit waxy flexibility: c an several distinct personalities who normally move them into new positions) have no awareness of each other. NOT ● CAUSES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA SCHIZOPHRENIA! o Brain abnormalities: enlarged ventricles o Usually caused by traumatic childhood (atrophy), smaller frontal cortex abuse o Genetics: runs in families, MZ twins at o Legitimacy is doubted by some, more higher risk common in those w/ good health o Dopamine hypothesis: too much insurance dopamine in the brain o Treatment involves integration of the o Diathesis – Stress: individual has a personalities genetic predisposition, disease must be ● Dissociative Fugue: following a traumatic “turned-on” by environmental stimuli event a person leaves, taking on a whole (like stress) – explains why it is most new life & personality w/ no memory of the commonly developed during college previous one MOOD DISORDERS years PERSONALITY DISORDERS ● Major depressive disorder: extreme sadness and despair, apathy towards life, w/ ● Marked by disruptive, inflexible, enduring behavior patterns – m  akes this very no known cause difficult to treat! ● Dysthymia: milder form of depression, o Antisocial: NOT “avoidant of lasts for years (Eeyore!) ● Bipolar disorder: bouts of severe socialization” – more like “anti-society” – depression & manic episodes disregard for others, manipulative, breaks o Mania: heightened mood, characterized laws by risky behaviors, fast talking, flights of o Borderline: instable interpersonal ideas relationships & self-image, “I hate you, ● Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): form don’t leave me” of depression that occurs typically winter – o Histrionic: excessive emotionality & found mostly in Northern areas (Alaska, attention seeking (slut disorder) Ireland) UNIQUE TREATMENT = o Narcissistic: need for admiration & lack LIGHT THERAPY of empathy (who cares about everyone CAUSES OF MOOD DISORDERS else – look at me!) ● Biology: lower levels of serotonin & norepinephrine linked to depression, higher levels of norepinephrine linked to mania. Runs in families suggesting GENES. Twin studies also support this. ● Cognitive: negative thought patterns leads to depression SCHIZOPHRENIA NOT MULTIPLE PERSONALITIES! THEY HAVE ONE PERSONALITY! ● SYMPTOMS o Positive Symptoms (not good – means something added)) ▪ Hallucinations: sensory experiences w/o sensory stimulation (seeing and/or hearing things) ▪ Delusions: fixed, false beliefs (people are out to get them, grandiose thoughts (I am God) ● COGNITIVE APPROACH: o Rational-emotive therapy: (developed by ELLIS) techniques include analyzing self-defeating behaviors to change thought patterns – and then change behaviors associated w/ said patterns ▪ Best for anxiety disorders ▪ Very confrontational o Cognitive therapy: (developed by BECK) illogical thoughts → psychological problems, challenges those thoughts ▪ Best for depression ▪ Self-directed – you figure out your errors ● BEHAVIORAL APPROACH (typically used for anxiety disorders / phobias) o Classical Conditioning: ▪ Counterconditioning Little Albert & Watson ● Aversive conditioning: associate an unpleasant experience (e.g. nausea) w/ an unwanted behavior (e.g. drinking alcohol) Exposure therapy: slowly expose people to whatever it is that makes them anxious ● Systematic desensitization: associate a pleasant relaxed state w/ gradually increasing anxiety triggering stimuli (create a desensitization hierarchy – ex. List of things about flying that makes you nervous – step through each one till you can do it) ● Intensive exposure therapy (Flooding): force someone to experience the fear (afraid of drowning, throw you in a pool) o Operant Conditioning: use behavior modification (reward good behaviors w/ token reinforcers ). Used in schools, w/ autistic children, etc. ● OTHER THERPAIES: o Family therapy: treats the family as a system, individual behaviors are influenced by family dynamics o Group therapy: therapy through a group – lets patients see “they’re not alone” ● BIOLOGICAL APPROACH: CALLED BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES o Drug therapies (psychopharmacology): ● PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH: SEE Anti-psychotics: decrease dopamine: PERSONALITY SECTION treats schizophrenia ● HUMANISTIC APPROACH: ● Side effects: TARDIVE DYSKINESIA: o Client-centered therapy: (developed by hand tremors (similar to Parkinson’sCARL ROGERS) techniques include due to lack of dopamine), worsening active listening, accepting environment, of negative symptoms, extreme focuses on patient growth (you figure sedation out what needs to change and do it) ● Drug names: thorazine, clozapine prisoners. w/in days they took on their roles Anti-depressants: increase serotonin and went too far. Highly unethical through REUPTAKE inhibition ● Cognitive dissonance (FESTINGER): two ● Side effects: drowsiness, anxiety, can opposing thoughts conflict w/ each other, increase suicide risk in teens causing discomfort (dissonance), which ● Drug names: SSRIs (selective makes us find ways to justify the situation serotonin reuptake inhibitors) like (cult that was going to be abducted by Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil. SNRIs (selective aliens, smokers) norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) SOCIAL INFLUENCE Cymbalta, Effexor ● Conformity: classic experiment done by Mood stabilizers: used in the treatment ASCH – showed lines of different lengths, of BIPOLAR disorder : LITHIUM confederates gave wrong answers to see if Anti-anxiety drugs: depress the central others would go along w/ it nervous system (dangerous in combo o Normative social influence: we w/ alcohol) Xanax, Ativan conform to gain approval or to not stand o Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): send out from the group (be part of the norm electricity into the brain to induce minor o Informational social influence: we seizures. Used (rarely) t o treat depression conform to others b/c we think their (when nothing else works) . Thought to opinions must be right “reboot” the brain ● Obedience: classic experiment done by o Psychosurgery (frontal lobotomy): MILGRAM: participants were to “teach” frontal lobe is surgically destroyed. Used another individual using shocks. 60% of to treat depression or violent individuals – participants would administer lethal shocks almost never used anymore to another person simply b/c they were told to GROUP INFLUENCE ● Social facilitation: perform better on SOCIAL THINKING simple or well learned tasks in the presence ● Attribution theory: we explain others of others behaviors by crediting the situation or the ● Social loafing: tendency for ppl in a group person’s disposition (they only passed b/c to exert less effort when pooling their effort they cheated) together (tug of war) ● Fundamental attribution error (very ● Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness similar to Actor-observer bias): and self-restraint occurring in group tendency for observers to underestimate situations that foster arousal and anonymity the importance of the situation and (mob mentality) overestimate the impact of personal ● Group polarization: the more time spent disposition (that guy cut me off b/c he’s a w/ a group the more similar (polarized) their jerk – not that his wife could be in labor) thoughts / opinions will become ATTITUDES AND ACTIONS ● Groupthink: desire for harmony w/in a ● Central route to persuasion: change group leads to everyone going along w/ the people’s attitudes through logical same thinking, ignoring other possibilities arguments and explanations. Leads to or bad ideas long term behavior change ● Risky shift: groups make riskier decisions ● Peripheral route to persuasion: change together rather than alone people’s attitudes through incidental cues PREJUDICE (like a speaker’s attractiveness). Leads to ● Ingroup: “US” – ppl w/ whom we share a temporary behavior changes common identity ● Outgroup: “them” – ppl perceived as ● Foot in the door phenomenon: different or not part of the group complying w/ a small request then leads ● Ingroup bias: tendency to favor our own to going along w/ a larger request (can I group have $5? Yes. Now can I have $25?) ● Scapegoat theory: prejudice offers an ● Door in the face phenomenon: a large outlet for anger by providing someone request is turned down, when then leads you else to blame to be more likely to comply w/ a small ● Ethnocentrism: tendency to see your request (can I have $100? Heck no! How own group as more important than others about $20? Okay) ● STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT ● Just-world phenomenon: tendency for ppl to believe that the world is just and (ZIMBARDO): classic “experiment” where therefore ppl get what they deserve individuals were assigned to be guards / (homeless ppl) AGGRESION  ● Genetic influence: runs in families, can breed for in animals ● Lower serotonin, higher testosterone ● Environmental influence: social learning theory (BANDURA) – observing violence in others makes us more violent for a time o Also: pollution, crowding, heat, humidity ● Frustration-aggression hypothesis: frustration creates anger, which leads to aggression ATTRACTION  ● Mere exposure effect: repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them (the more time you spend around something the more you like it) ● Physical attractiveness: pretty ppl are thought to be more credible, less likely to do bad things ● Similarity: we prefer ppl similar to us ALTRUISM  ● Altruism: unselfish regard for the welfare of others ● Bystander effect: the more ppl around the less likely we are to help someone in need ● Social exchange theory: social behavior (helping) is an exchange process – aim is to maximize benefits and minimize cost ● Reciprocity norm: we give so we can get  CONFLICT ● Social trap: conflicting parties pursue their own best interests, which can result in destructive results (prisoner’s dilemma – game theory) ● ● ● Approach approach conflict: win – win situation; conflict is which win you have to choose (you can eat out at ONE of your two favorite restaurants – you can only choose one though) ● Approach avoidance conflict: win – lose situation; outcome has positive and negative aspects (marriage) ● Avoidance avoidance conflict : lose – lose; both outcomes are bad but you have to choose one (clean your room or do your homework) ● Multiple approach avoidance conflict: two (or more) win-lose situations; conflict is which to choose (College A is good for your major but no scholarship, College B is bad for your major but has a scholarship) SOCIAL  SELF ● Self-concept bias: what we consider important in ourselves is what we consider important in others ● False-consensus effect: we overestimate the degree to which everyone else thinks / acts the way we do ● Self-fulfilling prophecy: a belief that leads to its own fulfillment (I expect you all to pass, you know this, you study – fulfilling my prophecy) ● Self-serving bias: readiness to perceive ourselves as favorably ● Spotlight effect (self-objectification) : tendency of an individual to overestimate the extent to which others are paying attention to them MULTIPLE CHOICE STRATEGIES ● Bubble as you go – you don’t want to run out of time! ● Answer EVERY QUESTION – you don’t lose points for guessing o If you run out of time pick either B, C, or D and bubble straight down. ● If you don’t recognize an answer choice – it probably IS NOT THE ANSWER ESSAY WRITING STRATEGIES ANSWER THE STUPID QUESTION! ● Don’t write in bullet points! o No Fluff – no transitions – no topic / thesis statements ● Be specific and apply the answer to the prompt