Nature Vs Nurture Debate

In this document you will find the assumptions of the approaches, strengths and weaknesses of each study, nature vs nurture debate, and individual vs situational factors. I suggest treating this like gold Biological Approach Biological Approach The biological approach assumes that behaviour, cognition, and emotions: are controlled by biological systems and processes such as hormones and genes. can be investigated by manipulating and measuring biological responses, such as eye movements and brain activity. Dement and Kleitman Strengths and Weaknesses Reliability is high as it was a lab experiment with many controls. For example, the doorbell made people instantly wake up so that dreams wouldn't be forgotten by slow-woken people. Demand characteristics were avoided as participants were not told whether they were in REM or not as otherwise, they would try recalling harder. Exhibits validity as the details recorded focused on dreaming; the definition of a 'dream' had been operationalised ; and asking participants to choose between 5 or 15 mins helped reduce participant variables such as the ability to guess. Quantitative data such as brain waves, eye movement patterns, and REM sleep duration was collected through the EEG and EOG. Qualitative data such as the dream content was collected, but it's subjective and can affect the validity since the narrative length is not only dependent on the REM phase length, but also on the participant's expressiveness. Both genders were included thus, there's generalisability . However, the sample size is too small, therefore limiting generalisability . Deception of participant WD being woken up in the wrong sleep stage can cause distress as they'd try recalling dreams harder. Context: Participant WD had been told they'd be woken up in their REM stage of sleep, but was actually woken up randomly during their REM or NREM stages of sleep. Lacks ecological validity as people who are used to taking alcohol & caffeine may experience atypical dreams. Sleeping in a lab connected to electrodes would be unusual, and this may tamper with their sleeping behaviour . Nature vs. Nurture Dream content relates to our experience, so it is a product of nurture. However, the ability to dream is a product of nature. Hasset Et al Strengths Ethical guidelines on treating lab animals were followed by researchers when caring for the monkeys. They had constant access to water, they were fed monkey chow twice a day, and fruits and vegetables every day. Using the operationalised behavioural checklist increased the validity and reliability of results, as it guided researchers on how to record observations in the same way. For example, the behaviour ‘sit on’ was described as sitting on or part of a toy. Different pairs of toys were used on each trial, and this increased the validity as we can determine that males were drawn to wheeled toys in general, and not just a specific wheeled toy. Using video cameras increased the validity of the data recorded because the monkeys were used to the cameras. If a researcher recorded data in person instead, the monkeys might show demand characteristics by playing more or less with the toys. Quantitative data collected on toy interaction duration allowed for the objective calculations of the average time the monkeys spent with the toys. This removes room for subjective interpretations. Weaknesses The standardised procedure was abandoned for a trial because a monkey tore a plush toy causing the trial to be stopped 7 minutes early. This reduces the reliability of results. There is a chance observer bias may have increased subjectivity . The researchers who analysed the tapes were familiar with the monkeys and their gender and this could have led them to unintentionally code the behaviour of the monkeys differently to their actual behaviour . There was a lack of adult males in the sample, hence reducing the generalisability of results. The only one high-ranking male didn’t interact with any toys, hence, findings can only be generalised to lower-ranking, non-adult male monkeys. Ecological validity is low because the sample consisted of monkeys in captivity, and they might be more likely to show interest in new objects in their environment. Therefore, we can’t entirely generalise results to explain if wild monkeys behave in the same way. Validity is low because, in each trial, a group of monkeys were sent out. So if one monkey occupied the wheeled toy, another monkey wanting to play with a toy would go to the plush toy regardless of their personal preference. Nature vs Nurture Hassett believed that toy preferences in humans are due to nature because male monkeys prefer wheeled toys over plush toys, whereas females show no clear preference. Findings supported the nurture debate that interactions were affected by social rank. Female monkeys' social rank was positively correlated with the time spent interacting with both toys. However, female dominance is influenced by testosterones which is a biological effect. Applications to everyday life Findings are helpful when choosing toys for children. Results suggest that boys like moving toys, so if a parent wants to develop their empathy, toy vehicles with expressive faces can be bought. As girls like plush toys with faces, their visuospatial skills can be improved by using toys with moving parts but in a context where dolls are included. For example, playing a scene with toy school buses and dolls. HOLZEL Strengths Longitudinal design that measured grey matter changes over an 8 week period, this is important because it limits participant variables that may have confounded the results. This is a strength because by allowing time for the intervention to have an effect the researchers were able to wait for the experiences of intervention to affect brain plasticity in a measurable way. + the addition of a control groups allows for comparison that brain changes were not attributed to the passage of time, and therefore due to the MBSR program. The use of an MRI scanner to measure the DV was a strength because it provided the researchers with quantitative data , enabling them to carry out statistical analysis such as comparisons between pre and post levels of grey matter volume and between MBSR groups. It is not possible for p’s to alter their grey matter volume in response to demand characteristics , which increases validity of data collected . Using MRI scanners gives objective data as the recorded volumes themselves do not need the researcher to interpret any results. Strength Ethics – right to withdraw, screening for p’s who had metel implants, clausterphobia , which could have caused psychological/physical harm. The absence of correlations between increases in grey matter in any brain area examined and either the amount of mindfulness homework completed or changes in FFMQ scores. This is important because it suggests that the number of minutes spent on mindfulness practice is not the direct cause of brain changes…Instead, the researchers propose that the effect if mediated by the MBSR program as a WHOLE . Application to everyday life – Holzel found that an MBSR program significantly increased mindfulness. Mindfulness is important to ‘self referential processing’ for example the unity of our sense of self and our physical body could offer a way to help people with temporal parietal junction (TPJ) impairments Also areas of the cerebellum and hippocampus were identified as regions of the brain that had increased grey matter. These areas of the brain regulate emotions and cognition therefore beneficial to people. Nature vs Nurture – Holzel has a clear biological focus on brain structure. This is determined largely by the process of nature hence the similarities between humans. Hozel demonstrated that the MBSR program changed brain structure. This is an effect of nurture and shows thtat even those structures and processes that seem highly constrained by biology (brain structures) can be influenced by experience (MBSR program, mindfulness activities) Cognitive Approach Cognitive Approach The cognitive approach assumes that: behaviour and emotions can be explained in terms of cognitive processes such as language, thinking and memory. similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of individual cognition. Andrade Doodling Strengths and Weaknesses Extraneous variables could be controlled as it was a lab experiment. For example, people listened at a comfortable volume so there were no differences in stress on words The standardised procedure made all participants equally likely to be bored and therefore daydream. For example, the same monotonous recording was used and all participants were sat in a dull quiet room. This improves validity as differences in results were due to doodling or not. There is high reliability as all participants were similarly bored. The operationalisation of doodling was standardised by using the doodling sheets and this increases validity . The dependent variable had been operationalised in terms of false alarms and score calculation. Participants' age ranged from 18-55 years thus, were representative. However, they are from a recruitment panel and may be very similar. For example, they all may be interested in psychology. This could bias the sample, therefore lowers validity. Further, most of the participants were females. The study collected quantitative data, the number of names and places. This is an objective record of memory. It would have had been helpful to ask participants for self-reports of any daydreaming to understand whether differences in results were due to attention or daydreaming. Ethical Concerns Participants did not give informed consent fully for the recall task. This may have caused psychological distress. However, participants were debriefed and apologised to by the researchers. Application to Everyday Life When listening to a lecture, doodling might be advantageous. However, deliberately drawing something may be counterproductive. Individual vs. Situational Explanation for Behaviour As doodling affected recall, this shows a situational effect on information processing. However, people do not doodle in the same way. This shows an individual difference behind doodling behaviour. Baron Cohen Eyes Test, Theory of Mind Strengths and Weaknesses S1:It was a lab experiment, so confounding variables could be controlled. Thus, there is internal validity and it is easily replicable. Everyone saw the same set of eyes. S2:Improvements on the eyes test improved validity. W1:The study lacks ecological validity as eye expressions in real life are quick, and not static. W2:The experimental sample (group 1) is small, so generalising results to those with AS/HFA is not possible. W3:Only the eyes were used, but normally we study the whole face (mouths are expressive) therefore it lacks ecological validity. W4:As this was a quasi-experiment, it wasn't possible to randomly allocate participants to the conditions. This introduces a confounding variable as it could be another factor causing the d ifference in scores between groups. Researchers try to attend to this by having the IQ matched control group. Application to Everyday Life Programmes could be conducted to help people with AS/HFA in developing their skills of interpreting emotions. The eyes test could be improved to help diagnose individuals who may have underlying autistic disorders. Individual vs. Situational Explanations The AS/HFA group performed significantly worse on the RET than the 'normal' group. This suggests that the ability to identify mental states is an individual skill that is developed. The environment had been standardised (supports individual explanation). POZZULO (lineups) Strengths and Weaknesses Collected quantitative data by recording accurate identification or rejection of faces in a line up. This means they were able to accurately compare the conditions so they could look at the effect of the IV’s (age and target type cartoon/human face) . Repeated measures was a strength that increased the internal validity of the findings. P’s took part in both types of line up (target present/target absent) with both types of target (cartoon/human). Target present line ups provided a baseline so that performance in target absent line ups could be compared. Consent was gained by the parents and from the children themselves (in a friendly way). Had the right to withdraw and were ensure ongoing monitoring of their fatigue, anxiety, and stress to protect them from harm . LEARNING APPROACH Learning Approach The learning approach assumes that: conditioning helps to explain changes in behaviour . social learning helps to explain changes in behaviour Bandura Aggression (bobo doll) Strengths It was a laboratory experiment, so it was possible to control extraneous variables. For example, all children had seen their models for the same length of time. Model behaviour was standardised . This makes the research more valid, reliable, and replicable. There is high inter-rater reliability, and it leads to accurate data collection. Children were unaware that they were being watched, and this increased validity as they are less likely to show demand characteristics. Weaknesses Only 6 children were used in each experimental condition and this is a small sample. Further, they all attended the same nursery and had academically able parents. This could bias the sample and lower the validity. Children may have imitated behaviour , due to demand characteristics and social desirability, as they might have thought that they had to imitate the model. A longitudinal study would have better explained the durability of the newly learned behaviour . Ethical Issues Some children might have been harmed by becoming more aggressive. Children had been mildly annoyed, which could be psychologically distressing. Children didn't have the opportunity to consent or withdraw. As the study may have caused distress to the children, this is a key ethical issue. The headteacher was aware, but the parents' consent is missing. Application to Everyday Life The study shows that when children (especially boys) are exposed to violence or aggression in real life or through the media, the models influence their behaviour. Nature vs. Nurture Boys imitated more aggressive behaviour than girls because they have more hormone testosterone, which is a nature factor. Boys may be more likely to imitate aggression because they have learned about male stereotypical behaviour. Individual vs. Situational Explanation for Behaviour The situational influence of models had led children to imitate aggressive behaviour. Individual factors explain why the acquisition of behaviours differs between boys and girls, and it may be because they are differently rewarded for sex-typed behaviours. Saaverda and Silverman Strengths and Weaknesses The study is highly valid a s the participant was studied over a period of time. Standardised measures such as the Feelings Thermometer were used. Quantitative data collected show the improvements seen which were highly likely due to the treatment. Qualitative data collected was helpful in understanding the reasons underlying phobias. They got rid of his phobia. The sample is difficult to generalise from as the case is less likely to be representative of the general population. W The study is subjective as the boy created his own hierarchy of disgust/fear and gave personal ratings. The case study involved building rapport with the participant thus, there is less room for objectivity researcher bias may take place, further compromising validity. There might have been demand characteristics shown as the boy was fully aware he was undergoing therapy; this might have affected the ratings he gave. Application to real life Shows how therapy based on classical conditioning can be used to treat some phobias. It also shows the long-term improvement from exposure therapies. Nature vs Nurture Classical conditioning relies solely on a nurture-based explanation of learning. Phobias are not innate but, are considered to be products of negative experiences with previously neutral stimuli. Fagan Strengths The behavioural checklist had operationalised descriptions. For example, ‘bucket’ was described as ‘the distal end of the trunk is gently placed inside the bucket’. Operationalisation helped increase the reliability of the recordings. The mahouts did not speak or signal to the elephants upon request of researchers for the duration of the study. This means that changes in behaviour are solely due to secondary positive reinforcement given by trainers, hence proving the high validity of the results. Ethical guidelines of consent, psychological harm, & safety were followed as elephants were allowed to refuse participation by walking away. This helped reduce their distress, subsequently lowering the risk posed to trainers, observers, and mahouts of being physically harmed in the case the elephants got uncooperative. Elephant 1, the youngest got distracted and impatient if the training sessions were too long. Hence, they reduced the tests from 8-16 trials to just 5, to reduce the physiological distress she experienced. Data collection occurred in natural settings (where the elephants lived) with animal noises coming from the surrounding jungle. This increases the ecological validity of results, proving that findings would be similar if conducted on elephants in safari parks and zoos. Weaknesses Only 5 elephants were used in the study, limiting the generalisability of results to male and adult elephants. The one & only adult elephant (elephant 5) had physical issues and failed to learn the full trunk wash. Adults may be able to learn the trunk wash using secondary positive reinforcement, but more research is required. Since the amount of times Elephant 1 was tested had been reduced, this means standardised procedures were not followed. Therefore, this limited the reliability of the results. Although the two observers had rated the elephants’ behaviour , they may not have found the same results due to subjective observer bias . Hence, using a camera to record their behaviour would have improved results as their validity could have been re-ensured. The elephants regularly failed the steady task – they only reached 70% accuracy instead of 80% because they were not good at the trunk-down task, hence reducing the validity of the results. The operational definition of ‘steady’ included completing 3 ‘trunk-here’ & ‘trunk down’ tests and 4 ‘trunk-up’ tests, but the elephants had trouble completing the ‘trunk-down’ task. The total training time is inaccurate since it included the time for training behaviours which weren’t part of the trunk wash, hence reducing the validity of the results. For example, 4 elephants were trained on the ‘trunk-out’ behaviour , which was later stopped since it wasn’t necessary. The measurement of the elephants’ performances was subjective since they had to decide if they felt the elephants successfully completed a full trunk wash. For example, the angle might have been difficult to interpret correctly, or a bit of liquid may have been spilled and the outcome could be reported differently by another observer. Individual vs Situational Explanation Elephant 5 failed to learn the trunk wash due to individual differences such as being older much than the others and having physical issues (abscess on her foot, and impaired vision). Contrastingly, her slow rate of learning might have also been due to situational factors – for example, the young calf who strayed into her stall might’ve distracted her. Application to real-life The study proves that captive elephants can be trained to cooperate for vet procedures in a safe & efficient way. The trunk wash is critical for managing TB in animal sanctuaries & zoos, and it ensures the health & well-being of animals, as well as humans who could potentially catch it from them. Additionally, the technique of positive reinforcement can be used to teach other behaviours. This would reduce the need for manual restraints & sedatives when undergoing blood sampling and xrays, reducing stress and improving well-being. Milgram Strengths and Weaknesses Controlled observation makes it possible to control extraneous variables in the environment such as age and appearance. Hence, the shock level administered did not depend on how sympathetic the teacher felt towards different stooges. The level of control and standardisation such as the same responses and prods used means that the research was more reliable. Detailed design of the shock generator and the test shock given increases validity because it convinced participants that the shocks were real and their actions mattered. The participants were all males and were from the same area. This makes results less generalisable to the target population. Milgram carefully selected participants to ensure a range of ages and backgrounds, which allowed the sample to have greater validity. An objective record of measuring the voltage levels of shocks delivered — a qualitative measurement — was taken. Results were easily comparable, and conclusions could be easily drawn. Qualitative measurements such as detailed information on behaviour and comments. This data is more susceptible and provides a richer understanding. Ethical Issues • They did not give informed consent as they were told the false aim ? deception. • Deception as the chits were rigged. • Participants were arguably denied their right to withdraw. • Participants underwent psychological harm and distress. There may have been lasting negative consequences as they may have been deeply disturbed by their own actions. Application of the study • Administrative offices - to stand up to unjust requests of bosses •Educational institutes • Hospitals have whistle-blowing policies to encourage the reporting of mistakes made by doctors to protect patients. PERRY Strengths and Weaknesses The double-blind technique used when administering the solution helps reduce experimenter bias and demand characteristics since neither the Pp nor the experiementer knew whether oxytocin or saline was being given. This ensures that responses from Ps weren't exaggerated in terms of acting more or less sensitive to changes in personal space, leading to increased validity of resuts . Quantitative data collected can be easily analysed and allows scores across experiments to be compared. The percentage distance remaining was measured without subjective interpretation, thus increasing the objectivity of data. The validity of results collected from the self-report measure may be questionable due to possibly being subject to social desirability bias . Ps may have over-reported their empathy to appear more socially desirable, hence accidentally putting themselves in the high-empathy category instead of low-empathy. The sample only consisted of males, hence findings aren't generalisable to explain the behaviour of women in the same situation. Previous research has shown that women and men react differently to oxytocin. Ps were deceived in experiment 2 as they were informed earlier that they had to discuss a personal topic with another person in a room, but the following week were told the meeting wouldn't take place. This may have caused Ps to feel anxious (risk of psychological harm ) about this future meeting. High levels of standardisation - Using a computer allowed researchers to control timings, speeds, and visuals to ensure they were the same between Ps. For example, in exp. 2, each pairs of rooms were shown for 2 secs and all furnitures were kept the same. Hence, the study can be easily replicated to find out if results are reliable . Using a widely validated CID paradigm to investigate preferred interpersonal distance increases validity of results. Findings lack ecological validity since the study used computer based tasks in a lab setting. Completing the task on a computer may not have recreated the intense feelings of discomfort Ps may feel if they felt their personal space was being invaded in real life. Therefore, results aren't generalisable to explain behaviour in real life situations. Individual and Situational Explanations Individual differences determine the effect of oxytocin on a person's social cognition and behaviour. Findings showed oxytocin decreased preferred interpersonal distance in those with high empathy traits, but increased in those with low empathy. Administering oxytocin affects preferred interpersonal distance in predictable ways, meaning that situations which promote oxytocin release may influence social cognition and behaviour. Research suggests that oxytocin levels increase in many situations, including socialisation, thus preferred interpersonal distance can be affected by environmental factors which increase oxytocin. Applications to Everyday Life Oxytocin administration may not help individuals with social deficits such as Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), as it may strengthen social biases. Perry et al. found that administering oxytocin to low empathy individuals led them to increase their preferred interpersonal distance , hence proving that oxytocin's an unsuitable treatment for males with social disorders PILIAVIN (subway Samaritan) Strengths and Weaknesses It was a field experiment using independent groups design therefore, there was high ecological validity as participants’ behaviour was natural. However, we cannot control extraneous variables that influence behaviour thus, lowering validity and reliability. We cannot be sure if participants only took part once. They may suspect a set-up and show demand characteristics by helping more, or less. NYC subway sample is not generalizable to the upper class, rural areas, other countries but, as the sample was large it is likely to be representative. The sample included different ethnicities thus, there is representativeness. Quantitative measurements were objective as data by the two observers could be cross-checked, thus it is reliable. Qualitative data such as the remarks and behaviour of participants helped understand thoughts and behaviours . Ethical Issues: participants did not give informed consent in taking part plus, they were not debriefed. Participants were deceived as they may have thought that the victim genuinely requires help. They may have suffered psychological distress from guilt or concern. Their comments were recorded, and this could be considered a violation of privacy. Application to Everyday Life It tells us the specific situational factors that may make bystanders more likely to help such as, same race or same-sex. We can also learn that an individual is more likely to be offered help if they do not intimidate, embarrass, or disgust the helper.