Psychology 6. Learning

LEARNING DEFINITIONS OF LEARNINGThere are four primary types of learning styles: visual, auditory, reading/writing, and kinesthetic. Each learning type responds best to a different method of teaching. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERYSpontaneous recovery is a phenomenon of learning and memory that was first named and explained by Ivan Pavlov in his studies of classical (Pavlovian) conditioning. In this context, it refers to the re-emergence of a previously extinguished, or eliminated, conditioned response after a delay. CLASSICAL CONDITIONINGClassical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian conditioning) is learning through association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. Essentially, two stimuli are linked together to create a new learned response in a person or animal. TIME & CLASSICAL CONDITIONINGTiming is integral for conditioning to occur. There should only be a brief interval between presenting the conditioned stimulus and presenting the unconditioned stimulus. The interval may be as short as five seconds, varying on what is being presented (Chance, 2009). IVAN PAVLOVIvan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist best known in psychology for his discovery of classical conditioning. He studied the digestive systems of dogs, noticing that the animals salivated naturally upon the presentation of food. TASTE AVERSIONTaste aversion is conditioned, and it is the avoidance of a certain food following a period of illness that emerged after consuming that food. These aversions are a great example of how classical conditioning can result in changes in behavior, even after only one incidence of feeling ill. AUTOSHAPINGAutoshaping is a form of conditioning that arises when a subject that has been given reinforcement following a stimulus, regardless of its response to that stimulus, consistently performs an irrelevant behavior that is not connected to the conditioned response. OPERANT CONDITIONINGOperant conditioning is a method of learning taught through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual forms an association between a particular behavior and a consequence. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVEPOSITIVEPositive Psychology is the scientific study of the strengths that enable individuals and communities to thrive. Positive Psychology was founded on the belief that all people are inherently good, and that they want to lead meaningful and fulfilling lives to be able to cultivate the best within themselves, as well as enhance their experiences of love, work, and play. NEGATIVE- While Positive Psychology implies that focusing on strengths and virtues will enhance wellbeing, Negative Psychology implies that increased wariness and suspicion will enhance scientific progress. POSITIVE & NEGATIVE CORRELATIONIn a negative correlation, the variables move in inverse, or opposite, directions. As one variable is increasing, the other variable is decreasing. When two variables have a positive correlation, the variables are moving in the same direction. This means as one variable increases, the other does as well. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENTSchedules of reinforcement are the rules that are used to present, or remove, reinforcers (or punishment) following a specified operant behavior. Different schedules of reinforcement produce different, distinctive effects on operant behavior. B.F. SKINNERB. F. Skinner's work made him one of the most influential American psychologists. He studied behavioral psychology and developed the theory of operant conditioning - the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, whether they’re reinforcements or punishments, PREMACK PRINCIPLEThe Premack principle can be applied when parents ask their children to eat their dinner (low probability behavior) before eating their dessert (high probability behavior). The child learns to eat their dinner to be able to eat their dessert, which is the preferred behavior. The child learns to focus on the reward. PRIMARY & SECONDARY REINFORCEMENTPRIMARY REINFORCERA Primary Reinforcer is a stimulus that is biologically important to an organism, such as food, water, sleep, shelter, safety, pleasure, and sex. Primary reinforcers are also called unconditioned reinforcers or unconditioned stimuli SECONDARY REINFORCER Secondary Reinforcement refers to a situation wherein a stimulus reinforces a behavior after being previously associated with a primary reinforcer or a stimulus that satisfies basic survival instinct such as food, drinks, and clothing. A secondary reinforcer can be helpful or not. BEHAVIOR MODIFICATIONBehavior modification is a therapeutic approach designed to change a particular undesirable negative behavior. By using a system of positive or negative consequences, an individual learns the correct set of responses for any given stimulus. SUPERSTITIOUS BEHAVIORSuperstitious behavior. Superstitious behavior arises when the delivery of a reinforcer or punisher occurs close together in time (temporal contiguity) with an independent behavior. Therefore, the behavior is accidentally reinforced or punished, increasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again. PAVLOV'S THEORYPavlovian theory is a learning procedure that involves pairing a stimulus with a conditioned response. In the famous experiments that Ivan Pavlov conducted with his dogs, Pavlov found that objects or events could trigger a conditioned response. Whenever he gave food to the dogs, he rang the bell. THE PQ4R METHODThe PQ4R method's name is derived from the six overlapping stages for studying material preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review (Thomas & Robinson, 1972). Extensive experience has shown that this method can improve memory and understanding, thus leading to better test performance.