Thinking, Knowing, Remembering, and Communicating

Answer Key 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. C C D C C C A C C D B C C D C B A D C A A B D C B A D C B D D D A D D D D B B A C D 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. B C A A C C B C C A D D C D C A C A D B C C D C D B B D A B C B D D B A B D D 1. Which term refers to all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating? A) algorithm B) heuristic C) cognition D) mental set 2. Professor Pegler's research efforts focus on how the use of heuristics influences the way people assess financial risks. Which specialty area does his research best represent? A) developmental psychology B) biological psychology C) cognitive psychology D) personality psychology 3. A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people is a(n) A) algorithm. B) prototype. C) heuristic. D) concept. 4. When we use the word automobile to refer to a category of transport vehicles, we are using this word as a(n) A) mental set. B) heuristic. C) concept. D) algorithm. 5. A prototype is a A) mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. B) step-by-step procedure for solving problems. C) best example of a particular category. D) simple thinking strategy for solving problems efficiently. 6. In the process of classifying objects, people are especially likely to make use of A) algorithms. B) fixations. C) prototypes. D) mental sets. 7. Prototype is to category as ________ is to ________. A) rose; flower B) chair; table C) man; woman D) rope; weapon 8. With which of the following statements will people typically agree most quickly? A) A penguin is a bird. B) A goose is a bird. C) A robin is a bird. D) An ostrich is a bird. 9. After identifying an ethnically blended face as Asian rather than as Caucasian, Belgian students recalled the face as more closely resembling their ________ of an Asian face. A) algorithm B) heuristic C) prototype D) fixation 10. Eva had difficulty recognizing that a sea horse was a fish because it did not closely resemble her fish A) hierarchy. B) heuristic. C) algorithm. D) prototype. 11. People are likely to take less time to recognize a woman as a nurse than a man as a nurse because a woman more closely resembles their nurse A) heuristic. B) prototype. C) algorithm. D) fixation. 12. People are likely to detect male prejudice against females ________ easily than they detect female prejudice against males. They are likely to detect younger people's prejudice against older people ________ easily than they detect older people's prejudice against younger people. A) more; less B) less; more C) more; more D) less; less 13. Kevin did not know whether the locker room was located down the short hallway to his right or down the long hallway to his left. Crossing his fingers, he decided to try the short hallway. His problem-strategy best illustrates A) confirmation bias. B) the framing effect. C) trial and error. D) belief perseverance. 14. An algorithm is a A) simple thinking strategy for making decisions quickly and efficiently. B) testing method involving trial and error. C) automatic, intuitive judgment. D) methodical step-by-step procedure for solving problems. 15. A chess-playing computer program that routinely calculates all possible outcomes of all possible game moves best illustrates problem solving by means of A) the availability heuristic. B) belief perseverance. C) an algorithm. D) framing. 16. Simple thinking strategies that allow us to solve problems and make judgments efficiently are called A) fixations. B) heuristics. C) prototypes. D) algorithms. 17. The use of heuristics rather than algorithms is most likely to A) save time in solving problems. B) yield more accurate solutions to problems. C) minimize the overconfidence phenomenon. D) involve greater reliance on convergent thinking. 18. As he attempted to spell the word receive, Tim reminded himself “i before e except after c.” Tim's self-reminder best illustrates the use of A) trial and error. B) insight. C) an algorithm. D) a heuristic. 19. After spending two hours trying to solve an engineering problem, Amira finally gave up. As she was trying to fall asleep that night, a solution to the problem popped into her head. Amira's experience best illustrates A) belief perseverance. B) the availability heuristic. C) insight. D) a mental set. 20. Research participants were asked to identify a word that could be associated meaningfully with each of three other words. Solutions that occurred with sudden insight were accompanied by a burst of activity in the brain's ________ lobe. A) right temporal B) left temporal C) right occipital D) left occipital 21. The confirmation bias refers to the tendency to A) search for information that supports our preconceptions. B) judge the likelihood of events on the basis of how easily we can remember examples of them. C) overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. D) make judgments in a very inefficient, time-consuming fashion. 22. Because she believes that boys are naughtier than girls, Mrs. Zumpano, a second-grade teacher, watches boys more closely than she watches girls for any signs of misbehavior. Mrs. Zumpano's surveillance strategy best illustrates A) the availability heuristic. B) confirmation bias. C) framing. D) belief perseverance. 23. Business managers are often overly confident of their own hiring ability because they are more likely to monitor the successes of people they hired than the achievements of those they rejected. This illustrates that overconfidence may be facilitated by A) an algorithm. B) prototypes. C) the framing effect. D) confirmation bias. 24. Scientists are trained to carefully observe and record any research outcomes that are inconsistent with their hypotheses. This practice most directly serves to reduce A) the framing effect. B) divergent thinking. C) confirmation bias. D) algorithms. 25. The inability to see a problem from a new perspective is called A) divergent thinking. B) a fixation. C) a heuristic. D) framing. 26. Some people are unable to arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles because they fail to consider a three-dimensional arrangement. This best illustrates the effects of ________ on problem solving. A) fixation B) heuristics C) framing D) overconfidence 27. A tendency to approach a problem only in the particular way that worked previously is most indicative of A) the availability heuristic. B) divergent thinking. C) overconfidence. D) a mental set. 28. A mental set is most likely to inhibit A) confirmation bias. B) overconfidence. C) creativity. D) belief perseverance. 29. During high school, Charlie found it easy to get away with cheating on his tests. College is a different story, so Charlie spends as many hours devising new ways to cheat as it would take him to study and perform well in an honest fashion. Charlie's shortsightedness best illustrates the consequences of A) an algorithm. B) a mental set. C) confirmation bias. D) the availability heuristic. 30. In contrast to our explicit conscious reasoning, our seemingly effortless and automatic feelings or thoughts are called A) mental sets. B) aptitudes. C) algorithms. D) intuitions. 31. A reliance on quick intuitive judgments is best illustrated by our use of A) convergent thinking. B) algorithms. C) trial and error. D) heuristics. 32. Our tendency to judge the likelihood of an event on the basis of how readily we can remember instances of its occurrence is called A) framing. B) confirmation bias. C) belief perseverance. D) the availability heuristic. 33. Just passing by a person who sneezes and coughs heightens our perceptions of various health risks. This best illustrates the impact of A) the availability heuristic. B) belief perseverance. C) confirmation bias. D) framing. 34. Dean overestimates the proportion of family chores for which he takes sole responsibility because it's easier for him to recall what he has done than to recall what other family members have done. This best illustrates the impact of A) overconfidence. B) framing. C) confirmation bias. D) the availability heuristic. 35. A televised image of a starving child had a greater impact on Mr. White's perception of the extensiveness of world hunger than did a statistical chart summarizing the tremendous scope of the problem. This suggests that his assessment of the world hunger problem is influenced by A) belief perseverance. B) an algorithm. C) confirmation bias. D) the availability heuristic. 36. By encouraging people to imagine their homes being destroyed by winds from a hurricane, insurance salespeople are especially successful at selling expensive homeowners' policies. They are most clearly exploiting the influence of A) belief perseverance. B) an algorithm. C) overconfidence. D) the availability heuristic. 37. A single, memorable case of welfare fraud can have a greater impact on people's estimates of welfare abuse than do statistics showing that this case is actually the exception to the rule. This illustrates that judgments are influenced by A) confirmation bias. B) overconfidence. C) belief perseverance. D) the availability heuristic. 38. The indelible memories of the 9/11 terrorist tragedy unduly inflated many people's estimates of the risks associated with air travel. This best illustrates the importance of A) fixation. B) the availability heuristic. C) confirmation bias. D) framing. 39. We fear too little those events that will claim lives A) accidentally. B) undramatically. C) in the near future. D) in a highly memorable way. 40. Which of the following best accounts for people's greater fear of commercial air flights than of driving an automobile? A) perceived control B) fixation C) the framing effect D) insight 41. Overconfidence refers to the tendency to A) cling to our initial beliefs, even though they have been proven wrong. B) search for information that supports our preconceptions. C) underestimate the extent to which our beliefs and judgments are wrong. D) judge the likelihood of an event based on its availability in memory. 42. Stockbrokers often believe that their own expertise will enable them to select stocks that will outperform the market average. This belief best illustrates A) a fixation. B) the framing effect. C) the availability heuristic. D) overconfidence. 43. The average kitchen remodeling project ends up costing about twice as much as homeowners expect. This best illustrates A) confirmation bias. B) the planning fallacy. C) belief perseverance. D) the framing effect. 44. When Larina started college, she was certain that she would never smoke marijuana. By the end of her freshman year, however, Larina had used the drug on three different occasions. Larina's experience best illustrates A) the availability heuristic. B) confirmation bias. C) overconfidence. D) the framing effect. 45. People with a superficial understanding of proposals for political change often express immoderately strong pro or con views. This best illustrates the impact of A) overconfidence. B) divergent thinking. C) the framing effect. D) an algorithm. 46. Stockbrokers who market their services with the confidence that they can outperform the market average in picking stocks are especially likely to A) appear credible to their customers. B) find it difficult to decide which stocks to purchase. C) avoid the dangers of belief perseverance. D) use algorithms to generate stock choices. 47. An unwillingness to give up our beliefs even when the evidence proves us wrong is called A) the availability heuristic. B) trial and error. C) belief perseverance. D) confirmation bias. 48. People with opposing views of capital punishment reviewed mixed evidence regarding its effectiveness as a crime deterrent. As a result, their opposing views differed more strongly than ever. This best illustrates A) the framing effect. B) the planning fallacy. C) belief perseverance. D) the availability heuristic. 49. Research findings suggest that the best advice to give people who want to avoid belief perseverance is A) “Try to justify your positions.” B) “Consider the opposite.” C) “Don't draw hasty conclusions.” D) “Be as objective as possible.” 50. When Quang couldn't find his wallet, he began to wonder about his roommate's honesty. Although Quang later recalled that he had left his wallet in the glove compartment of his car, he continued to doubt his roommate's honesty. Quang's irrational thinking best illustrates A) confirmation bias. B) an algorithm. C) belief perseverance. D) framing. 51. The value of making a good first impression when you begin work for a new employer is best underscored by the research on A) overconfidence. B) the framing effect. C) belief perseverance. D) the availability heuristic. 52. Wording a question or presenting an issue in such a way that it evokes a desired judgment is called A) framing. B) confirmation bias. C) belief perseverance. D) an algorithm. 53. On Monday, the meteorologist forecast a 20 percent chance of rain, so Sheryl took her umbrella to work. On Friday, he reported an 80 percent chance that it would not rain, so Sheryl left her umbrella at home. Sheryl's behavior illustrates the effect of A) confirmation bias. B) overconfidence. C) the availability heuristic. D) framing. 54. The risks of smoking are more alarming when presented in terms of the number of smokers with lung cancer than the percentage of smokers with lung cancer. This illustrates the importance of A) fixation. B) belief perseverance. C) overconfidence. D) framing. 55. A $100 coat marked down from $150 can seem like a better deal than the same coat priced regularly at $100. This best illustrates the importance of A) belief perseverance. B) confirmation bias. C) framing. D) the availability heuristic. 56. Consumers respond more positively to ground beef advertised as “75 percent lean” than to ground beef described as “25 percent fat.” This illustrates that consumer reactions are influenced by A) belief perseverance. B) confirmation bias. C) the availability heuristic. D) framing. 57. People are less upset when they miss getting an early payment discount than when they are asked to bear a late payment surcharge. This best illustrates the importance of A) belief perseverance. B) confirmation bias. C) framing. D) the availability heuristic. 58. People are very likely to decide to be organ donors when the default option on their renewable drivers' license forms is Yes, but they can choose to drop out. They are much less likely to decide to be organ donors if the default option on their license forms is No, but they can choose to opt in. This best illustrates the effects of A) framing. B) overconfidence. C) confirmation bias. D) the availability heuristic. 59. Implicit knowledge of what we've learned but can't fully explain is most clearly reflected by our A) intrinsic motivation. B) algorithms. C) intuitions. D) prototypes. 60. Although Kaylee agreed with a particular politician's policies and position statements, her unconscious gut reaction to his slightly high-pitched voice led her to vote for the opposition candidate. This best illustrates the impact of A) intuition. B) confirmation bias. C) overconfidence. D) belief perseverance. 61. Master chess players can make correct game moves at such speed that their acquired expertise feels like A) an algorithm. B) a prototype. C) extrinsic motivation. D) intuition. 62. Although intuition can at times hinder rationality, it is often adaptive because it facilitates A) framing. B) quick decisions. C) belief perseverance. D) a mental set. 63. If a stranger looks like someone who previously harmed or threatened us in some way, we may—without consciously recalling the earlier experience—react warily. This illustrates that our reactions to others may be influenced by A) fixations. B) algorithms. C) intuition. D) overconfidence. 64. A period of distraction that enables people to process complex information unconsciously can improve decision making. This best illustrates the value of A) algorithms. B) belief perseverance. C) intuition. D) trial and error. 65. The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas is called A) convergent thinking. B) belief perseverance. C) framing. D) creativity. 66. Convergent thinking involves A) a sudden realization of a problem's solution. B) searching for information that supports our preconceptions. C) narrowing down the available solutions to a problem. D) clinging to our initial conceptions despite contradictory evidence. 67. Expanding the number of possible solutions to a problem illustrates A) the availability heuristic. B) a mental set. C) belief perseverance. D) divergent thinking. 68. Injury to the left ________ lobe damages the convergent thinking required for successful performance on intelligence tests. A) frontal B) parietal C) occipital D) temporal 69. A person who can imagine many alternative uses of a paper clip best illustrates A) the framing effect. B) divergent thinking. C) the availability heuristic. D) convergent thinking. 70. Convergent thinking is to academic aptitude as divergent thinking is to A) belief perseverance. B) the availability heuristic. C) a mental set. D) creativity. 71. Intrinsic motivation is thought to be an important component of A) creativity. B) heuristics. C) an algorithm. D) intuition. 72. The most creative scientists are those who A) investigate issues about which they have very little previous knowledge. B) are intrinsically motivated to solve problems. C) have little tolerance for ambiguity. D) have a timid personality. 73. Kristina, a high school English teacher, is eager to promote creativity in her writing class students. Which of the following reminders is likely to do the most to accomplish her goal? A) “Your final essay will be evaluated by a well-known author.” B) “Many of the best jobs demand good writing skills.” C) “You can produce interesting insights through your writing.” D) “Admission to the most well-known colleges demands some creative ability.” 74. Environments that maximize creativity are likely to be those that foster A) convergent thinking. B) contemplation. C) belief perseverance. D) extrinsic motivation. 75. Allowing time for complex ideas to incubate outside of conscious awareness is most likely to promote A) extrinsic motivation. B) confirmation bias. C) mental set. D) creativity. 76. By learning to classify cats and dogs, monkeys demonstrate a capacity to form A) heuristics. B) algorithms. C) mental sets. D) concepts. 77. Alex was an African Grey parrot who displayed A) self-awareness. B) numerical ability. C) algorithms. D) the availability heuristic. 78. In Wolfgang Kِ hler's experiments, the chimpanzee Sultan used a short stick to retrieve a longer stick, which he then used to reach a piece of fruit. The chimpanzee appeared to display A) insight. B) a fixation. C) trial and error. D) the availability heuristic. 79. Forest-dwelling chimpanzees use a light, flexible stick for fishing for termites. This illustrates their naturally developed use of A) prototypes. B) tools. C) heuristics. D) algorithms. 80. One group of chimpanzees slurp termites directly from a stick, another group picks them off the stick one by one. One group of chimpanzees breaks nuts with a stone hammer; another group does this with a wooden hammer. These group differences in food-gathering practices best illustrate A) algorithms. B) heuristics. C) belief perseverance. D) cultural diversity. 81. Chimpanzee B watches Chimpanzee A obtain food either by sliding or by lifting a door. Chimpanzee B will then typically do the same to get food. And so will Chimpanzee C after observing Chimpanzee B. This sequence has been said to illustrate A) divergent thinking. B) an algorithm. C) the availability heuristic. D) cultural transmission.