AICE EXAM Review Packet

Name: Jaden Pierre Per: 7 .50 pts per answer x 300 answers =150 pts total AICE EXAM Study Guide Paper 1 Approaches, issues and debates (Exam 1): This paper will consist of short answer and extended response questions and will be assessed by a 1 hour 30 minute examination. This paper will not have sections. The paper will examine candidates’ knowledge of the core studies. Candidates will also be asked questions based on the four approaches and the AS Level issues and debates. The final question will examine candidates’ ability to make evaluative points about a study Research Methods Paper (Exam 2): This paper will consist of short answer and extended response questions and will be assessed by a 1 hour 30 minute examination. The examination paper will consist of three sections: Section A: Six short answer questions based on general research methods and research methods relating directly to a core study. The highest mark allocation in this section is six marks. (22 marks (points) total for this section) Section B: Three short answer scenario-based questions. Each question is divided into part questions. The highest mark allocation in this section is four marks. (24marks (points) total for this section) Section C: One design-based essay question divided into two parts. There are 10 marks for part (a) and 4 marks for part (b). The paper will examine how well candidates can use and apply their knowledge on research methods and how research methods relate to the core studies.(14 marks (points) total for this section) Individual(Give A Cognitive Core Study Example:) One application from the cognitive approach can be found in Andrade (doodling). For example, one could doodle while they are in class or an important meeting to keep them focused and get the info they need, rather than just sitting there and not paying any attention. Situational(Give A Social Approach Core Study Example:) One application from the social approach can be found in Piliavinet al. (subway Samaritans). Fagen: Elephants were used to see if animals could be conditioned to exhibit certain behaviors, just as humans could. It could be argued that training a wild animal with the use of chains is unethical, but aside from that there are no ethical concerns in this study. 4 Assumptions of Basic Approaches of Psychology 1). Biological: Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be explained in terms of the working of the brain and the effect of hormones Similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of biological factors and their interaction with other factors. Strengths: Very objective data, based around facts Weaknesses: Does not factor in confounding variables such as any environmental factors Scientific tools 2). Cognitive Behaviour and emotions can be explained in terms of the role of cognitive processes such as attention, language, thinking and memory Similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of individual patterns of cognition. Strengths: Practical application in real life Weaknesses: Causes for behavior cannot be observed specifically Scientific methods 3). Learning Conditioning helps to explain changes in behaviour Social learning helps to explain changes in behaviour. Weaknesses: Cannot be generalized, varies across subjects Ignores biological factors Strengths: Highly reliable 4). Social Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be influenced by other individuals Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be influenced by groups or social contexts. Weaknesses: social factors change with time Varies from culture to culture Strengths: Looks at multiple levels of explanation These are one of four ways we choose to investigate our question: Experiment, Case Study, Observation and Self Report The Scientific Method- This is what makes Psychology a science as we tend to use evidence to support our hypothesis. Observation/question Research Hypothesis and Aim Experiment Collect data Analysis of data Conclusion We have a question(s) based on an observation or a problem or curiosity about something we notice. We do research based on previous studies. This helps to guide where we will take the study. It can offer background or further perspectives on a given issue. Often if we do not agree with current research or ways of thinking about something, we need to explore a different avenue to answer our question(s), this will lead to one of four research methods depending on the need. 1.. Case Stu : a detailed investigation of one instance, usually a single person (but alternatively a single family, company or event). These may be rare or instances that could not be created artificially but can provide useful information. It uses a range of techniques such as interviewing, observation and testing. Example:_ Weakness: Hard to generalize Researcher bias Strength: Very detailed Explores unique situations 2. Self-Report: A questionnaire or Interview, which obtains data by asking participants to provide information about themselves. These can be the only method used or can be included in an experiment, case study or the end of an observation. If it is included in another type of research method, that research method becomes the dominate research method. Example: In the Button Phobia Study, it was a case study but the researcher used self-reports to aid in the quantitative data in the study. Questionnaires are written questions. This can be on paper or in email. Interviews are verbal questions asked directly for example face-to-face or on the telephone. Structured Interview: Questions are in a fixed order which may be scripture. This can increase standardization. Semi-Structured Interview: This is a fixed set list of open and closed questions and the interviewer can add more if desired. Unstructured Interview: Most questions (after the first one) depend on the respondent’s answers. A list of topics may be given to the interviewer . Weakness: Participant bias Strength: Fast way of obtaining data from a larger sample Easier and cheaper Misinterpretations List ALL Studies that used Self-Reports AND and how they were used: Pozzulo : questionnaires and structured interview to assess participants being able to identify a target in a line up Saavedra & Silverman : interviews for the boy and his mother to determine n ature vs . n urture Dement and Kleitman :s elf-reports to verify if the participants had a dream /determine what type Holzel et al .: q uestionnaires to collect data on mindfulness Baren Cohen : questionnaires ( “AQ” test ) to assess autism in participants Perry et al 3. Observation: a research method used when watching human or animal participants directly, to gather data about their behaviour. Observations can be either naturalistic (participants normal environment without interference) or Controlled (environment manipulated by the researcher). Often there is no control group. * With our core studies there are NO naturalistic observations. Each study has some manipulation of the environment. Controlled observations can be either structured (a study which the observer records only a limited range of behaviors) or unstructured (the observer records a whole range of possible behaviours, which is usually refined options after the Pilot study) Structured example: Using a checklist for behaviors that you are going to observe __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Give an Unstructured example: Recording all behaviors you observe in a certain time frame __________________________________________________________________________________________________ variable is not manipulated. Define the following: Independent Variable: The variable that is being changed Dependent Variable: The outcome/result of the IV _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Control Group: Group where everything remains constant, used to compare _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Extraneous Variable: Variable that was uncalled for and affects data. _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Participant Variable: Individual characteristics of a participant that could influence the study _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Most experiments usually are conducted in some type of laboratory experiment, which is highly controlled and not a normal environment for the participants with regard to the behaviour they are performing. Experimental designs are the way in which participants are allocated to levels of the independent variable. There are 3 types: Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design and Matched Pairs Design) Independent Measures Design : Different participants are used for each level of the independent variable . They are randomly put in each level of the IV so that each person has an equal chance of being in any condition to reduce the effect of confounding variables such as individual differences. __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Repeated Measures Design Each participant does all levels of the experiment t o avoid order effects which causes changes in performance between conditions that are not due to the IV but can obscure the effect on the DV. This includes the Practice effect (doing better with repeating the tasks) and Fatigue effect (doing worse with exhaustion of tasks). This can be counterbalanced by splitting up the participants and having them begin on different levels of the experiment. __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Matched Pairs Design- an experimental design in which participants are arranged into pairs. Each pair is similar in ways that are important to the study and one member of each pair performs in a different level of the IV. __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Define these important terms for experiments: 1. Standardization: The process of making a test uniform, or setting it to a specific standard 2. Reliability: How often we obtain same or similar results 3. Generalisability: How applicable the results of a study are in a broad setting 4. Validity: The accuracy of results 5. Ecological Validity: How likely it is to happen in a real-world setting list strengths AND weaknesses AND give an example of the different types of experiments Laboratory Experiment Field Experiment Strength: Variables are easy to control Easily replicable Strength: More generalizability Reduce demand characteristics Weakness: Low ecological validity Low generalizability Weakness: all variables are difficult to control Confounding variables *For all 4 types of Research Methods you need to assess the following: 1. Observation/Question/Problem/Aim: the “WHY” are we doing this study 2. Hypothesis: What do you think will be the answer to the question? Null Hypothesis: There will be no change after the study __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1 Tailed hypothesis: There will be a change in one direction _________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2 Tailed hypothesis: There will be a change but direction is not specified _________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Sample: Who, what, when and where? Population: The most amount of people (animals) you can apply it to. 4. Procedure: Step by step from beginning to end. This includes how you measure the data and collect the data. 5. Results: Quantitative (numerical) and Quantitative (descriptive) data 6. Conclusion: Answer to the hypothesis and aim 7. Strengths and Weaknesses (use the G.R.A.V.E to aid in this) 8. Ethical Concerns Samples are the way we get participants to be involved in any study which represents a population. There are 3 different sampling techniques A. Opportunity Sample: : A technique which chooses Participants because they are available. Example: University students are selected because they are present at the university where the research is taken place Give an example using our core studies: Dement and Kleitman used opportunity sampling during their study B. Volunteer (self Selecting) Sample: A technique for obtaining participants by inviting them to participate for example advertisements via email or newspaper. Those who reply become the sample. Give an example using our core studies: Andrade use volunteer sampling of participants from a different study who volunteered for this study C. Random Sample: A technique for obtaining participants such that all members of the population (possible participants) are allocated numbers and a fizzed amount of these are selected in an unbiased way (like taking numbers from a hat) Give an example using our core studies: Pozzulo took children from 3 different private schools Ethical guidelines are pieces of advice that guide psychologists to consider the welfare of participants and wider society. There are guidelines for both humans and animals. Humans: define and give an example using our core studies of each. Guideline Definition Example Obtain permission from participant to do the study Informed Consent Andrade et al. Right to withdraw Participants at any point can quit participating in experiment Fagen et al. Definition Example Participants have control over information presented about themselves Privacy Hassett et al. When experimenters lie to participants but it is similar to the truth in some way and doesn’t cause harm Limited Deception Perry et al When experimenters give clarity on true intentions of experiment to participant Perry et al Debriefing Participants are kept from serious injury physically and psychologically Physical and Psychological Protection Dement and Kleitman Animals : define and give an example of each animal guideline. Guideline Definition Example Species and Strain Using the species that is most appropriate to relating back to humans Number of Animals Make sure you are not using an excessive amount of animals Using 5 elephants instead of 20 Using mice and or monkeys Keeping animals from excessive pain and distress that may lead to long term harm Keeping them in their natural habitat/enclosure Pain and Distress Housing Keeping them in a comfortable housing area Putting them in an enclosure similar to their natural habitat Rewarding them for participating Reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli Giving them a treat and or snack 1.Nature versus nurture: The nature-nurture debate is a crucial discussion running through all aspects of psychology in order to explain behaviour. Behaviours could be seen as resulting from innate, genetic factors (nature) or behaviours could be explained in terms of the environmental influences that begin to shape us from the moment of conception (nurture). The focus of contemporary psychology is to consider the relative contributions of each influence. 2.Ethics in psychological research; The need for ethical research constrains the investigation of some topics, or the use of some research techniques. Our approach to ethics has changed over time, so some of the earlier studies that were the basis of the discipline are now no longer acceptable. Ethics must be considered when designing a psychological investigation to ensure that data is gathered without compromising the wellbeing of the participant(s). 3.Choice of psychological research methods: Psychologists have to carefully choose the research method they use in terms of the information they wish to gather. Every research method, whether quantitative or qualitative, has strengths and weaknesses, and the psychologist must evaluate how the method they have chosen supports the validity and reliability of their specific investigation and contributes to the wider body of psychological research. 4.No one view in psychology is definitive: Psychological theories are developed by posing hypotheses which are then tested through research. The research will be influenced by the psychological approach of the researcher and the time and context they are working in. A single topic is likely to be studied in more than one psychological approach, and each approach has its own assumptions, strengths and weaknesses. These different explanations can work together or be in opposition, so psychologists have to balance the evidence for each explanation. 5.Relevance of psychology in contemporary society: Psychology is now used to underpin many aspects of our lives –it is used in organising businesses, in planning our shops and homes, in treating medical conditions and to improve how we learn. Every study is undertaken with a specific purpose in mind which can then be applied in everyday life –whether it is improving our lives in general, understanding how groups of people behave or treating a disorder. By understanding psychology we can improve how we live our lives and society in general. Bar GraphPiliavin (subway Samaritans) 62 ‘cane’ victims helped, 19 ‘drunk’ victims helped. Draw the bar graph to show these results (different categories) Victims helped Crane Drunk Histogram: a graph used to illustrate continuous data to show the distribution of a set of scores. It has a bar for each score value, or group of scores along the x-axis. The y-axis has frequency of each category. 10090806050Y-axis X-5 10 15 Frequency GraphFrequency refers to the number of times an event or a value occurs. A graph where the bars touch showing one item distributed. 151050 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Define: Measures of Spread: how similar or different the values of data are __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, or mode __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Define each word below and use this data set to put the correct answer: 23, 25, 38, 42, 42, 45, 60, 70 Mean: 43.125 Median: 42 Mode: 42 What is standard deviation and why is it important? How spread out the data is from the mean value and provides information to the dispersion of the data overall What is correlation and why is it important? Extent at which values have a relationship together helps us understand potential outcomes What is Normal distribution and what does it show/tell us? When the data set is evenly distributed from the mean tells us that the data near the mean is more frequent correlation coefficient is r and is a value from( -1,0) or (0,1 P-Value Meaning: how likely your data is from random chance rather than variables __________________________________________________________________________________________________ What is a good/bad p value?: Good P value is <0.05 bad p value is >0.05 1. Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) Psychological approach Biological approach Relationship between Rem and dreaming The psychology that is being investigated Background of the study Before the study took place, a connection between REM (rapid eye movement) sleep and dreaming was commonplace based on SUBJECTIVE data A: Determinate the relationship between eye movement and dreams Aim(s) and/or Questions asked Hypothesis 1: There will be a significant association between REM and dreaming. Hypothesis 2: There will be a significant positive correlation between the duration of dreams and duration of eye movement. Hypothesis 3: There will be a significant relationship between eye movement patterns and dream content Research Method (Experiment, Case study, Self-Report or Observation): Lab experiment Sample (size, location, age, type (Opportunity, Random or Volunteer), how): 9 participants 7 male 2 female opportunity sampling Experimental Design (Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design and Matched Pairs Design): repeated measure design Independent Variable(s): H1: H2: Rapid eye movements 5 or 15 mins of eye movement H3: pattern of eye movement Dependent Variable(s): H1: Method H2: whether or not dreaming how long the person thinks they are dreaming H3: actual content of dream Not all of these will be applicable depending on the study Control(s): controlled consumption of caffeine, made sure they were comfortable sleeping, used EEG Quantitative Data: Recall in rem total 152 no recall in rem total: 39 Recall in Nrem 11 no recall in Nrem 149 Qualitative Data: Results Results show that REM sleep is associated with dreaming, and NREM sleep is associated with periods of non-dreaming sleep Informed consent Confidentiality Minimizing harm Respect for rights and privacy Ethics Right to withdraw (use the guidelines) Dreams are more likely to occur during rem Conclusion Scientific/objective measurements • Lab: D&K controlled many variables (prestudy levels of caffeine and alcohol, the doorbell sound, the EEG monitoring). This means that another researcher could easily replicate this study to test it for reliability. • The high level of control of variables meant Strengths that for each part of the experiment, D&K could confidently conclude cause and effect (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) (that dream recall is affected by stage of sleep) Self report of dreaming & content was subjective • Sample size and makeup (cannot generalize) • No background provided for Ps (can be Ethnocentric) • Method of waking subject may have influenced ability to recall dreams • Correlation doesn’t mean causation Weaknesses • Participants had to sleep in an artificial setting (in a lab, with electrodes on their head). (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) Therefore, the study has low ecological validity. • Being woken up and then asking to recall dream content or estimate dream length is not a normal activity for people. Therefore, the study lacks mundane realism. 2. Hassett Psychological approach Biological approach The psychology that is being investigated Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy preferences parallel those of children Higher primates closely related to humans genetically, and with some very similar behaviors can provide a model. Background of the study Activities such as “rough-and-tumble play or interest in infants differ between genders, and these activities can be seen in humans and other primates. Aim(s) and/or Questions asked To investigate whether toy preferences in monkeys resembled those in children, in order to test whether sex differences in toy choice is biologically determined by sex. Research Method (Experiment, Case study, Self Report or Observation): Field experiment Sample (size, location, age, type (Opportunity, Random or Volunteer), how): 82/135 studied 21 male 61 female opportunity sampling Experimental Design (Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design and Matched Pairs Design): independent measure Independent Variable(s): type of toy Boy or girl toy Dependent Variable(s): how often and how long the monkeys interacted with each type of toy hassett cont Method Not all of these will be applicable depending on the study Control(s): the time of trials, definition of behaviors and what type of toys Procedure: For each social group, 7 trials, each lasting 25 minutes, were observed using 2 video cameras. Each trial began with all the monkeys indoors while 1 plush and 1 wheeled toy were placed 10 meters apart in the outdoor enclosure. One video recorder was directed toward each toy. Counterbalanced: plush and wheeled toys moved between left and right locations on each trial. A behavioral checklist was used to code specific activities directed toward the toys and exact time at which each activity occurred. Quantitative Data:male mean for plush(freq)2.06 female 7.97 stardard deviation ( freq) male 9.21 female 10.48 Wheeled (freq) mean 9.77 male 6.69 female standard deviation 8.86 male 4.92 femal Plush (min)mean 0.53 male 1.49 female standard deviation 1.41 male 3.81 female Wheeled(min) mean 4.76 male 1.27 female standard deviation 7.59 male 2.22 female Results Qualitative Data: Males preferred wheeled compared to plush toys, but females did not show a preference for plush toys over wheeled toys Females interacted with plush toys more than males, but there was no sex difference for wheeled toys. The duration of time spent interacting with the different toy types did not differ for females, who played for a similar total length of time with wheeled and plush toys. Prevention of harm Housing Ethics Ability to withdraw (use the guidelines) Results show that, like boys, male monkeys have a strong preference for masculinetype toys, in this case ones with wheels. Female monkeys, like young girls, ae more variable in their toy preferences. Hassett et al. findings support a biological explanation for toy preferences. Conclusion These preferences develop in the absence of socialization. The use of animals to eliminate the effect of socialization. Excludes confounding variables: age and social rank that could affect social interactions Age was known as the monkey group had established for over 25 years Social rank assessed through behavioral observations (grooming, dominant behavior) hassett cont Strengths Highly standardized: clear operational definitions of behaviors to improve reliability Trials were standard length of 25 minutes (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) Differences in the way monkeys and children were compared different toys different duration of play children were not measured in frequency Weaknesses Children tested individually, monkeys in groups (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) 3. Holzel Psychological approach Biological approach The psychology that is being investigated Mindfulness and brain scans Background of the study Studies have compared individuals who engage in meditation, and those who do not and have found differences in grey matter. Overcome potential problems from cross sectional study • Use longitudinal design Aim(s) and/or Questions asked • Identify changes in specific brain regions, and the whole brain, by comparing grey matter before and after a mindfulness course Research Method (Experiment, Case study, Self Report or Observation): experiemnt Sample (size, location, age, type (Opportunity, Random or Volunteer), how): Opportunity 6 males and 10 females average age 38 Experimental Design (Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design and Matched Pairs Design): Independent Variable(s): 8-week mindfulness-based intervention. 2 ½ hour session each week, and a full day session in the 6th week. • ‘Body scan’: attention is guided through whole body • ‘mindful yoga’: stretching, slow movements and breathing (awareness of moment to moment experience) • Sitting meditation: focus on breathing, and progresses to sounds, sights, tastes, other body sensations, thoughts, emotions Method Not all of these will be applicable depending on the study Dependent Variable(s): change in grey matter assessed using MRI scans • Additionally, participants completed questionnaires to measure five mindfulness scales Quantitative Data: Results Qualitative Data: Experimental group (MBSR goup): • Avg 22.6 hours on mindfulness homework, or approx. 27 min/day • Significantly increased mindfulness scores on 3 of the subscales (compared to control) • ‘regions of interest’: • Changes in the grey matter of the left hippocampus were detected in the MBSR group between preand post-tests • Changes in grey matter did not show significant changes in other ‘regions of interest’ None accepted into the study had metal implants or claustrophobia (risk of harm) • Right to withdraw (2 did leave the study after first MRI) • ALL participants were experiencing stress (Dr. or self referral), and control group had to delay help Ethics (failure to protect from harm) • Approved by University of Massachusetts (use the guidelines) Institutional Review Board, and all participants gave written consent and received a discounted MBSR course fee Changes in the left hippocampus arise within an 8-week period of participation in a mindfulness course • Suggests learning experiences can change the hippocampal Conclusion grey matter • Participation in mindfulness course increases grey matter in the temporo-parietal junction, posterior cingulate cortex and cerebellum Longitudinal study allows time for intervention to have an effect • Control group allows comparison to ensure changes were not simply attributed to passage of time Strengths • MRI: provides researchers with quantitative data enabling researchers to carry out (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) statistical analysis between pre- and post- levels of grey matter • MRI give objective data, no need for researcher to interpret results • MRI: no demand characteristics MRI: interpretation of data with respect to neural changes and how this maps into changes in thoughts and emotions is much less objective • Absence of correlations between increases in grey matter and the amount of mindfulness homework completed or changes in the FFMQ scores Weaknesses • Suggests number of minutes spent in (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) mindfulness is not cause of chance in brain, maybe it is because of MBSR program as a whole Andrade (doodling) Psychological approach Cognitive approach The psychology that is being investigated Background of the study WHAT DOES DOODLING DO Daydreaming uses cognitive processing resources so inhibits performance on tasks (attention, memory). But, it keeps us aroused/awake when bored. Will doodling assist information Aim(s) and/or Questions asked processing (attend a task more effectively, enhance memory)? Research Method (Experiment, Case study, Self Report or Observation): experiemtn Sample (size, location, age, type (Opportunity, Random or Volunteer), how): 5 males 35 femals age 18-55 opportunity sampling Experimental Design (Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design and Matched Pairs Design): independent measure Independent Variable(s): doodle or not doodle Dependent Variable(s): how many party-goers names were recalled and how many places were recalled Method Control(s): watched the same video all participants tested the same way Not all of these will be applicable depending on the study Procedure: 2.5 minutes •Monotonous voice andrade cont. •Average speed of 227 words/minute •8 names of people attending party •3 names of people and one cat who could not attend •8 place names (cities) •Standardized instructions •Control group give paper with lines Quantitative Data: Doodling: Names correct: 7.8 (SD 0.4) False alarm: 1(by one person) Names & Places correct: 7.5 29% more Results Qualitative Data: Control: Names correct: 7.1 (SD 1.1) False alarm: 5 people Names & Places correct: 5.8 Didn’t give full consent andrade cont Debriefed Ethics Not exposed to harm (use the guidelines) Doodling helps concentration on a primary task. It may improve attention, by increasing arousal & reducing daydreaming Conclusion It may directly improve memory by encouraging deeper information processing Limits uncontrolled variables •Participants were listening at a volume comfortable to them •Recorded telephone message All participants equally bored and likely to daydream •Monotony of recording Strengths •Quiet room •They all wanted to go home (tired from (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) first experiment) •Doodling instructions Participant panel (can lower validity Weaknesses because of bias) •The kind of people who volunteer for such (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) panels may be similar •Time to spare •Interest in psychology \ Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) Psychological approach Cognitive approach The psychology that is being investigated Autism Spectrum Disorder & theory of mind In their original study (1997), Baron-Cohen et al. Background of the study found several issues which were solved in the revised version (2001). Participants with ASD will score significantly lower scores on the revised Eyes test than the control group. 2. Participants with ASD will score significantly higher on the Autism Spectrum Quotient Test (AQ) 3. Females in the ‘normal’ groups (groups 2 and 3) will score Aim(s) and/or Questions asked higher on the Eyes test than males in those groups. 4. Males in the ‘normal’ group (group 3) would score higher on the AQ measure than females. 5. Scores on the AQ and the Eyes test would be negatively correlated Research Method (Experiment, Case study, Self Report or Observation): experiment Sample (size, location, age, type (Opportunity, Random or Volunteer), how): Group 1 15 people age 29.7 group 2 122 people age 46.5 group 3 103 people age 20.8 group 4 14 people Experimental Design (Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design and Matched Pairs Design): independent measure design Method Independent Variable(s): type of participant in each condition Not all of these will be applicable depending on the study Dependent Variable(s): score on revised Eyes test then IQ score Control(s): Procedure: First – Each participant read through a glossary that they could use during the study baron cohen cont Second – Each participant was shown a practice set of eyes Third – The Eyes test took place in a quiet room in Exeter or Cambridge (Group 1 was also given a control task on gender recognition (not dependent on theory of mind) Fourth – Groups 1, 3, 4 completed the AQ test at home and returned it by post Quantitative Data: 3.8 average number of words correctly identified on the Eyes test 3.9 average scores on AQ test Results Qualitative Data: Group 1 (AS/HFA) scored significantly lower than the other groups on the eyes test • Sex differences (M/F) were apparent but not significant Group 1 (AS/HFA) scored significantly lower than the other groups on the eyes test • Sex differences (M/F) were apparent but not significant Group 1 (AS/HFA)scored significantly higher on the AQ task • Small but significant difference between M/F AQ scores Informed consent Ethics •Data was kept confidential •Identifying ‘normal’ or ‘impaired’ performance can be seen as representing neurodiverse groups in a negative way (use the guidelines) •By identifying differences we have the potential for greater understanding in society ETHICAL ISSUES The negative correlation between scores on the AQ and scores on the Eyes test suggests that Conclusion people with autism struggle with theory of mind. Like most lab experiments, it was highly standardized. •Reliability was high: it could be repeated to check the results •Confounding variables controlled (limiting distractions in quiet room, glossary) •Improves internal validity: research can be repeated to check the Strengths reliability of the results (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) Low ecological validity: our eyes are not ‘static’ and we see the face and often know the Weaknesses circumstances •Only 15 participants with ASD so (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) may not be representative of all. WEAKNESSES 6. Pozzulo Psychological approach Cognitive approach The psychology that is being investigated Pozzulo and Lindsay (1998) found that when the culprit is not among the people in a line-up, children are more likely than adults to identify an innocent person A child may feel they NEED to choose one of the people Background of the study • A child is likely to view the adult who is asking as an authority figure (especially if it is a police officer) and is more likely to comply • Children may feel more pressured to make a choice than adults. 1.Children will be as good as adults at identifying cartoon faces in a target-present line up 2. Children will be worse than adults at identigying human faces in a target-present line up 3. Children will be worse than adults at rejecting cartoon faces in Aim(s) and/or Questions asked a target-absent line up 4. Children will be worse than adults at rejecting human faces in a target-absent line-up Research Method (Experiment, Case study, Self Report or Observation): Experiemnt Sample (size, location, age, type (Opportunity, Random or Volunteer), how): Experimental Design (Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design and Matched Pairs Design): repeated measure and independent measure Independent Variable(s): Age: 1.young children vs. adults 2. Line-up type: identification (target-[present) vs. rejection (target-absent line-up) 3. Level of cognitive demand (familiarity of tartet): cartoon (familiar, low cognitive demand, so differences due to social demand) vs. human (unfamiliar therefore higher cognitive demand) Dependent Variable(s): Whether participant identified the correct face if present or the empty silhouette if not Control(s): age group, human line up characteristics Not all of these will be applicable depending on the study Procedure: Human face targets: 2 Caucasian students, 2 types of stimulus material: • Video: 6-second clip filmed of an everyday task • Female brushing her hair and male putting on his coat Quantitative Data: Results Qualitative Data: Adults were better than children at most tasks • Responses to cartoons were generally more accurate than responses to human targets. pozzulo cont • Little difference between the responses of children and adults in results the target-present test for cartoons. Each child’s parents/guardians and the adult participants, were given a written consent form • Informed consent given to children in childfriendly way • Right to withdraw was ensured Ethics • Children’s fatigue, anxiety and stress was monitored to protect from harm (use the guidelines) • If children had been victims of real crimes, this would have risked potential harm. For children, social factors play a larger part in decisionConclusion making in target-absent line-ups than in target-present ones Laboratory experiment, standardized environment • Experiment with adults and children was as identical as possible • The data produced was quantitative, enabling Pozzulo et al. to use statistics such as means to compare conditions (differences caused by Strengths IVs of age and target type) • Demand characteristics were controlled by giving minimal information (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) about purpose of study (increases internal validity [cause/effect not caused by other factors]) • Adults were told it was a memory study • Children were told it was about TV shows and computer games In lab experiment, line-up was not real so the situation would not have felt as important to Weaknesses participants as it would have in a real criminal case • Lowers ecological validity (looking for social effects (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) which could be influenced by emotions 7. Bandura et al. (aggression) Psychological approach Learning approach Transmission of Aggression through Imitation of Aggressive The psychology that is being investigated Models Bandura, Ross, & Ross (1961) AICE Psych- Developmental Psych Unit Bandura believed that conditioning on its own is inadequate as an explanation of the majority Background of the study of social behavior To demonstrate that learning can occur through mere observation of a model and that imitation can occur in the absence of that model H1- Children shown aggressive models will show significantly more imitative aggressive behavior Aim(s) and/or Questions asked than those shown non-aggressive or no models • H2- Children shown non-aggressive, subdued models will show significantly less aggressive behavior than those shown aggressive or no models Research Method (Experiment, Case study, Self Report or Observation): experiment Sample (size, location, age, type (Opportunity, Random or Volunteer), how): Stanford uni 72 total 36 boys 36 girls 3-6 years old Experimental Design (Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design and Matched Pairs Design): independent measure Independent Variable(s): 1- presence of model • 2-behavior of model (aggressive/non-aggressive) • 3- gender of model (male or female) • 4- gender of child (natural) Dependent Variable(s): amount of aggression displayed by the child in a Method later situation Not all of these will be applicable depending on the study Control(s): same toys same time to play with toys and same behaviors observed Procedure: Aggressive condition: bandura cont ? Model started playing by himself/herself w/the tinker toys for a minute... ? Then started beating up Bobo with specific acts that could be imitated by the child... ? Laying Bobo on his side, sitting on it & punching it, hitting it with the mallet, throwing it in the air, and kicking it around ? Said remarks of “pow,” “hit him down,” & “he sure is a tough fella! Each child was escorted to a room with a one-way mirror • Child was recorded for 20 minutes by 2 observers (on the other side of mirror) recording the child’s actions every 5 seconds (240 observations for each child) Quantitative Data: Qualitative Data: Children from the aggressive model group showed Results significantly more imitation of the model’s physical & verbal aggression and non-aggressive verbal responses (H1) • Children from the aggressive model group showed more partial imitation & non-imitative physical & verbal aggression participants were children ? Parental consent acquired? ? Possible long-term effects? were any children more aggressive afterwards? Ethics • Children were asked to witness aggressive behavior • Children were expected to exhibit aggressive behavior (use the guidelines) • Children were mildly provoked to feel aggression • Children observed covertly • Some children experienced distress in the study Study provided support for Bandura’s social learning theory ? Learning through social behaviour & modeling ? Shows identification of which models are likely to be imitated • Study shows that children can learn as a result of imitation Conclusion and without reinforcement ? This suggests that modeling is a form of observational learning Lab setting enabled better control of variables, providing cause & effect of modeled behavior and recorded behavior • Lab allows for replication of study Strengths • Quantitative data allowed for inferential stats, leading to the probability for results due to chance (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) • Qualitative data (though very limited) provided better overall picture Low ecological validity/mundane realism • No true standardization of models (videos used in later trials) Weaknesses • Sample from one middle-class US nursery school (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) • Criticized as categorizing children’s actions as aggressive, but children may have seen their behavior as play 8. Fagen Psychological Learning approach approach Operant Conditioning- Learning from the consequences of your behavior. The psychology that is being investigated Traditional training methods rely on punishment • Punishment and aversion techniques rely on an negative stimulus, such as pain or fear of pain. • In traditional methods (Southeast Asia), elephants are trained using the pain inflicted by the sharp end of a whittled bamboo stick, known as the kocha in Nepal. • In Nepal, captive elephant management relies on unlimited Background contact between handlers and trainers (Locke, 2006), a of the study management system known as free contact. • A different system called ‘protected contact’, improves keeper safety by maintaining a barrier between the handler and elephants and that relies solely on positive reinforcement or reward-based training. to determine the effectiveness of secondary positive fagan cont Aim(s) and/or Questions asked reinforcement (SPR) in training free-contact elephants in Nepal to voluntarily participate in a trunk wash for the purpose of tuberculosis testing. Research Method (Experiment, Case study, Self Report or Observation): observation Sample (size, location, age, type (Opportunity, Random or Volunteer), how): 5 female elephants opportunity Experimental Design (Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design and Matched Pairs Design): Independent Variable(s): Dependent Variable(s): Control(s): Method Procedure: Training was conducted during morning and afternoon sessions (7:30 a.m.–10 Not all of these will be a.m. and 4p.m.–7 p.m.) while the elephants were chained in their stalls applicable The elephant needed to put the end of her trunk in the trainer's hand depending on the study • 2) Allow the trainer to instill saline or sterile water into the trunk • 3) Lift the trunk upward so that the fluid ran to the base of the trunk, • 4) Hold the fluid in the base of the trunk • 5) Blow out the sample of liquid • All of these behavioral tasks had to occur smoothly in succession so that none of the fluid was lost on the ground and the elephant did not drink the solution Quantitative Data: Results fagan cont Session times range from 25-35 Qualitative Data: Participant dropout began occurring after Session 25 as participants completed their training Very good /The elephants were housed in their usual place, not food deprived, bananas were used as an extra reward item. Ethics (use the guidelines) This study proves that it is feasible to train juvenile, free-contact, traditionally trained elephants in Nepal who have no prior experience with SPR training to voluntarily participate in a trunk wash using only SPR techniques. Conclusions: The elephants respond reliably, and teaching new tasks is an Conclusion efficient process. SPR could be a great tool for captive management programs around the world to improve behavioral management, animal health through voluntary veterinary participation, trainer– elephant relations, and animal welfare. Coding the observations, allowing objective data to be analyzed: # of offers needed to apss, HFUBB (here, fluid, up, bucket blow) Strengths • Standardizations used: behavior checklist, defining behaviors, SPR (Use the G.R.A.V.E to training time, can be all replicated help) Outcome can be subjective • Trainer did not use exact same criteria for every behavior response made by elephant/ Weaknesses there were no recordings to ensure inter-observer reliability (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) 9. Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) Psychological approach Learning approach The psychology that is being investigated Phobias is a widely researched subject; however, the role of disgust within a phobia has had very little attention. • It is thought that disgust could interact with the fear a phobic stimulus Background of the study produces to increase avoidance behavior of that stimulus. To investigate the causes of a button phobia in a child. • To attempt to treat a child’s phobia of buttons via targeting Aim(s) and/or Questions asked both disgust and fear responses. If the causes of a button phobia in a child are investigated, then it will be able to be successfully treated by using exposure-based cognitive therapy. Research Method (Experiment, Case study, Self Report or Observation): Case study Sample (size, location, age, type (Opportunity, Random or Volunteer), how): Florida International University 9-year-old Hispanic boy Experimental Design (Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design and Matched Pairs Design): Independent Variable(s): exposure to buttons [mental images and physical] Dependent Variable(s): level of distress and disgust Control(s): Method Not all of these will be applicable depending on the study Procedure: Used “feelings thermometer” ( 9-point scale, 0-8) on boy – came into contact with 11 stimuli which had different types of buttons singularly (not on clothes), then introduced on clothes saavedra cont • positive reinforcement therapy by mother, during which he is rewarded for being less fearful of buttons/handling them (gradual exposure treatment on mother’s clothing) • -Imagery exposure therapy: disgust imagery and cognitions were the main Quantitative Data: Qualitative Data: By session 4, the boy successfully completed all the exposure tasks (Table 1 of study). (Increasing the number of different buttons manipulated) • However, the boy’s ratings of distress increased from session 2 to session 3 and continued to rise to session 4, despite his Results ability to increase the amount of buttons he touched. • Despite increasingly tolerance to exposures or phobia (buttons), the boy’s evaluative reactions (i.e. disgust) to the buttons either remained unchanged or increased. Ethics Some distress in the sessions (use the guidelines) Conclusion Strengths (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) Weaknesses (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) 10. Milgram Psychological approach Social approach The psychology that is being investigated Social pressure Destructive obedience Milgram was certain that situational explanations were more plausible (people would harm or kill another Background of the study under orders of an authority figure). His students disagreed. They guessed less than 3% would deliver the maximum voltage shock. To investigate how obedient individuals Aim(s) and/or Questions asked would be to orders received from a person in authority. Research Method (Experiment, Case study, Self Report or Observation): observation Sample (size, location, age, type (Opportunity, Random or Volunteer), how): 40 men age 20-50 yale uni volunteer Experimental Design (Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design and Matched Pairs Design): independent measure Independent Variable(s): Dependent Variable(s): Control(s): controlled what the experimenter said every trial Procedure: The participant and stooge were Method taken to a room where stooge was strapped in to a machine which he Not all of these will be applicable depending on the study was told would electrocute him when commanded: to a range of voltages (15 to 450). The participant was then taken to another room, and shown how to distribute shocks. The “experimenter” remained with him; and wore a white lab coat. His manner was stern. Quantitative Data: On a scale 1-14, the average pain estimate of 450V was 13.42. Participans’ obedience was very high. The mean maximum voltage distributed was 368V. 65% gave the maximum 450V milgram cont Qualitative Data: After procedures ended, Results participants showed relief (wiped face, sighed, shook their heads) Some comments were made during the procedure, such as: “I don’t think this is very humane”, “I’m gonna chicken out...I can’t do that to a man- I’ll hurt his heart consent, but not informed 2. deception: tricked into believing randomly selected for ‘teacher’ 3. right to withdraw: many felt they had to keep going out of Ethics obligation to the research and the verbal prods 4. not protected from psychological harm (use the guidelines) 5. lasting negative consequences to participant who felt distressed by their own behavior. Conclusion 1. Controlled observation: control age/appearance of the stooge (standardized) 2. procedure standardized (verbal prods were same, learner’s responses same) (reliable as all participants had same experience) 3. Realistic design of electric shock generator, example shock given to participant (validity of Strengths design ensuring participants were convinced the study was real) (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) 4. range of ages and backgrounds Only men were in the sample, (low generalizability) Weaknesses (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) 11. Perry Psychological approach Social approach The psychology that is being investigated Perry et al. were interested in investigating how people’s personal space preferences are affected by a few different factors. • Measured people’s preferences for closeness to friends and Background of the study family • Tested whether people with different empathy abilities were influenced by OT on personal space preference Test the different effect of the social hormone oxytocin (OT) on personal space preference in relation to a person’s empathy ability Will highly empathetic traits in participants reveal Aim(s) and/or Questions asked the effect of OT on interpersonal distance choices? Will highly empathetic individuals prefer closer distances and will low empathy individuals prefer greater interpersonal distances when given OT? Research Method (Experiment, Case study, Self Report or Observation): experiment Sample (size, location, age, type (Opportunity, Random or Volunteer), how): 54 male undergraduates from University of Haifa 19-32 years (mean, 25.29) Experimental Design (Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design and Matched Pairs Design): mixed measure design Independent Variable(s): high or low empathy Dependent Variable(s): Personal Space requirements for each participant • Experiment 1: DV was operationalized as the preferred distance measured between participant and approaching person/object • Experiment 2: DV was operationalized as preferred distance and angle between two Method chairs in a room. Not all of these will be applicable depending on the study Control(s): same area, controlled who got saline and who got oxytocin Quantitative Data: Mean distance Results stranger authority ball friend 39.82% 34.12% 20.20% 12.46% Qualitative Data: OT was found to decrease the mean preferred distance from participant to other in the high empathy group, but had the opposite effect in the low empathy group Ethically strong as written • Informed consent obtained • Approved by U of Hafia’s ethics committee and The Hadassah Medical Centre to safeguard wellbeing Ethics • No side effects reported from participants (OT or saline [which were administered painlessly]) (use the guidelines) • Fully debriefed • *deception about purpose of task in Experiment 2, but unlikely to cause psychological distress OT enhances social cues • low empathetic + OT = increased personal distance • High empathetic + OT = decreased personal distance Conclusion • People need less distance between friends than strangers Good internal validity • Order of experiments counterbalanced to prevent order effects • Extraneous variables controlled: social interaction after OT or saline perry cont was minimized through use of waiting room. • Double-blind procedure reduces demand characteristics and Strengths researcher bias • Lab experiment, is highly standardized (images of room, 2 seconds (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) time, pics computer generated) making this experiment reliable and could be replicated Laboratory, lacking ecological validity • Participants asked to judge preferred distances Weaknesses using computer-generated images (may not be same as someone who may be known to them), (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) lacking mundane realism. 12. Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) Psychological approach Social approach The psychology that is being investigated Schopler & Matthews, 1965, showed that bystander helping occurs more when victims are Background of the study not seen as responsible for their circumstances. To investigate the bystander effect in a naturalistic setting. 1. the type of victim Aim(s) and/or Questions asked 2. the race of victim 3. the heavier of a ‘model’ 4. the size of the group of bystanders Research Method (Experiment, Case study, Self Report or Observation): Experiment Sample (size, location, age, type (Opportunity, Random or Volunteer), how): 4,450 45% black 55% white 43 people per carriage mean no. of participants in critical area 8.5 Opportunity sample NYC train Experimental Design (Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design and Matched Pairs Design): independent groups design Independent Variable(s): type of victim: ‘drunk’ or ‘ill’ 2. Race of victim: black or white 3. Behavior of ‘model’: close or distant to model, and helping Method early or late in the event 4. Size of group of bystanders: Not all of these will be applicable depending on the study naturally occurring Dependent Variable(s): Level of bystander helping Control(s): behavior of actor Procedure: Victim played by different males, but all were made to look similar •Aged 26-35 years Quantitative Data: 78% of victims received spontaneous help (before model intervened or in a no model condition). 60% of cases, more than one person helped 90% of helpers were male Results Qualitative Data: None of the passengers gave informed consent 2. None were debriefed Ethics 3. Deception: believed victim had collapsed and needed help (use the guidelines) In a natural setting many people would offer spontaneous help to a stranger. Several factors which influence help: •type of victim (drunk or ill) •Gender of helper (men are more likely to help) •Similarity of victim to helper (race, especially if the victim is drunk) Conclusion •Duration of emergency (the longer an emergency continues the less likely it is that anyone will help ood ecological validity. The train journeys were “real”, and the passengers did not know they were involved in a study. 2. The sample was very large with mix of ethnicities and genders: increasing representativeness and increases generalizability. Two observers gathering Strengths quantitative measures, increased reliability (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) 4. qualitative data helps researchers to understand the thoughts and behaviors associated with helping people in more depth. No control of extraneous variables (weather, train, day of the week) which could affect participant behavior. (lower validity and reliability) 2. Experimenters cannot be sure that participants only took part in the experiment once (suspecting a set-up) creating demand Weaknesses characteristic Subway participants in NYC: (Use the G.R.A.V.E to help) unrepresentative of whole population 4. The murder of Kitty Genovese had been in the news previously; possibly causing people to make special effort to help strangers.