Quasi-Experiments and Small-N Designs

Quasi-Experiments and Small-N Designs 1. Which of the following is a difference between true experiments and quasi-experiments? a. Quasi-experiments do not use random assignment. b. Quasi-experiments do not involve manipulated variables. c. Quasi-experiments cannot have comparison groups. d. Quasi-experiments cannot have pretest measures. 2. Which of the following is an independent-groups quasi-experimental design? a. Interrupted time-series design b. Nonequivalent control group design c. Nonequivalent groups interrupted time-series design d. Stable-baseline design 3. Which of the following is a within-groups quasi-experimental design? a. Interrupted time-series design b. Nonequivalent control group design c. Matched group factorial design d. Multiple regression design 4. Which of the following designs has elements of both a within-group design and an independent-groups design? a. Nonequivalent groups interrupted time-series design b. Nonequivalent control group design c. Matched group factorial design d. Multiple regression design 5. The degree to which a quasi-experiment supports a causal claim depends on which of the following? a. Its design and its results b. Its duration and its sample size c. Its importance and its external validity d. Its statistical significance and its practical significance 6. A wait-list design is helpful in dealing with which of the following threats to internal validity? a. Maturation b. Selection c. History d. Attrition 7. Which of the following is an advantage of using quasi-experimental designs? a. They allow researchers to capitalize on random assignment. b. They allow researchers to enhance external validity. c. They allow researchers to disregard internal validity. d. They are better suited to detect significant effects 8. In conducting quasi-experimental designs, researchers tend to give up some in exchange for a. internal validity; external validity b. internal validity; statistical validity c. statistical validity; external validity ANS: A d. construct validity; statistical validity 9. Why do quasi-experiments tend to have very good construct validity for the independent variable? a. The manipulations have been previously validated in the lab. b. They use real-world manipulations/experiences. c. They tend to use more participants. d. They also have good construct validity for the dependent variable. ANS: B 10. Research STUDY 13.2: Dr. LaGuardia is a cognitive neuroscientist who is interested in the effect of brain concussions on the ability to recognize faces. He conducts a quasiexperimental study in which he examines football players before and after the regular season using the Benton Facial Recognition Test (a published, widely used measure of one’sability to recognize faces) to compare those who received concussions to those who did not. He finds that players who had concussions during the regular season performed worse on the Benton Facial Recognition Test than did players who did not experience concussions.Which of the following makes Dr. LaGuardia’s quasiexperimental study different from a correlational study? a. He used a validated measure of the dependent variable. b. He was able to confirm the occurrence of a concussion rather than relying on self- report. c. He used a naturally occurring comparison group (i.e., players who did not suffer a concussion). d. He used members of a real sports team rather than members of the general population. 11. Which of the following is true regarding external validity in Dr. LaGuardia’s study? a. Because Dr. LaGuardia selected participants who actually experienced concussions, the study has strong external validity. b. Because Dr. LaGuardia’s study is a quasi-experiment, it is impossible to obtain external validity. c. Because Dr. LaGuardia’s dependent variable was assessed in the laboratory, the study has limited external validity. 12. If Dr. LaGuardia had instead been interested in conducting a small-N design, which of the following might he have done? a. He would not have compared participants’ performance on the Facial Recognition Test to other groups. b. He would have collected fewer types of data. c. He would have likely collected other additional dependent measures. d. He would have likely selected a topic where he expected a small effect size. 14. In analyzing the data, Dr. LaGuardia finds that there was no pretest difference in Benton Facial Recognition scores. However, he does find that the football players who received concussions had worse visuo-spatial awareness before the study. Which of the following threats to internal validity should he be concerned with? a. Regression to the mean 2 b. History threat c. Design confounds 13. In which of the following ways are correlational designs similar to quasi-experimental designs? a. They both use nonrandom samples. b. They both suffer from possible threats to internal validity. c. They both use random assignment. d. They both use small numbers of participants. 14. Which of the following is true of small-N experiments? a. Small-N designs determine whether a finding is replicable by doing a test of statistical significance. b. Data from small-N designs are presented as averages. c. Data from small-N designs are grouped together. d. Each person in a small-N design is treated as a separate experiment 15. Which of the following CANNOT typically be applied to a small-N experiment? a. Experimental control b. Manipulation of variables c. Inferential statistics 16. Seeing stability in a stable-baseline design can help rule out which of the following threats to internal validity? a. Regression to the mean b. Placebo effects c. Attrition d. Observer bias 17. Which of the following is NOT a small-N design? a. Interrupted time-series design b. Stable-baseline design c. Multiple-baseline design d. Reversal design 18. small-N design that involves providing treatment and then removing treatment is known as a(n): a. interrupted time-series design. b. stable-baseline design. c. multiple-baseline design. d. reversal design. 19. If a researcher is concerned about external validity, which of the following would you recommend with regard to conducting small-N designs? a. Do not conduct small-N designs if you are concerned about external validity. b. Compare the results of a small-N design with other studies. c. Conduct only reversal designs. d. Use only one’s own clients/patients/students. 20. According to the textbook, which of the following ethical questions might be posed specifically in reference to a reversal design? 3 a. Is it ethical to remove an effective treatment? b. Is it ethical to treat only one person? c. Can confidentiality be assured? d. Can consent be given? 21. In small-N designs, each participant is treated: a. with multiple interventions. b. by a clinical psychologist. c. as a data point. d. as a separate experiment. 22. Which of the following people would be of most interest for a small-N design? a. A college student b. A person suffering from a cold c. A person diagnosed with schizophrenia d. A psychology student ANS: C 23. Which of the following topics would be especially well suited to a quasi-experimental design? a. Does therapy improve coping skills following exposure to a natural disaster? b. Does watching violent movies cause increases in acceptability of aggression? c. Does parent-training therapy lead to better parenting skills? d. Do people diagnosed with a mental illness have poorer social abilities? ANS: D 24. How does a researcher who conducts a small-N design address external validity concerns about his study? a. Triangulates his findings with other findings b. Runs more small-N studies with similar participants c. Runs more small-N studies with the same participants d. Runs a large-N study before running a small-N study ANS: A 25. In a nonequivalent control group interrupted time series design, the independent variable is studied as: a. a dependent variable as well. b. both a repeated measures variable and an independent-groups variable. c. a guarantee of internal validity. d. frequently as possible. ANS: B 26. In quasi-experimental designs, the researcher does not have experimental control over the independent variable and does not randomly assign participants to conditions. This results in which of the following? a. The researcher being unable to rule out any threats to internal validity b. A study that is no different than a correlational design c. A weaker causal claim than a true experiment d. An unethical study 27. researchers may be interested in how a variable changes over the course of a major event that is scheduled outside of experimental control. This is called: a. nonequivalent control group design. 4 b. wait-list design. c. reversal design. d. interrupted time-series design. ANS: D 28. Which of the following is a difference between small-N and large-N designs? a. Large-N designs have the power to detect large effect sizes, while small-N designs can only detect small effects. b. Statistical validity is stronger in large-N designs, while generalizability is more important in small-N designs. c. Large-N studies typically gather less information about participants than small-N designs d. It is not possible to maintain experimental control in small-N studies, whereas it is in large-N studies. 29. Which of the following is an advantage of small-N designs over large-N designs? a. Small-N designs take advantage of unique cases. b. Small-N designs have better experimental control. c. Small-N designs generalize to larger groups of individuals d. Small-N designs have fewer threats to internal validity. 30. which of the following is a difference between participants in small-N designs compared to large-N designs? a. Large-N designs only generalize to the population from which participants are drawn, whereas small-N designs generalize to the larger population. b. Large-N designs benefit from having diverse populations, while small-N designs typically use normative samples. c. Large-N designs prioritize having a large sample over sampling procedures, while small-N designs focus on sampling procedures. d. Large-N designs are more concerned with selecting representative participants, while small-N designs focus on unique cases. ANS: D 1. The text states that the first step in establishing a study’s importance is to establish its . a. replicability b. external validity c. internal validity d. acceptance by scientists 2. Psychologists use which of the following strategies to determine a study’s replicability? a. Internal validity b. Repeating the study c. Generalizing d. Study reframing 3. Which of the following types of replications investigate the same research question but use different procedures? a. Statistical replication b. Direct replication 5 c. Replication-plus-extension d. Conceptual replication 4. RESEARCH STUDY 14.1: Mark conducts a study for his research methods class to determine if consuming caffeine causes people to perform better on cognitive tasks. In his study, he gives half of his participants a glass of water and half of his participants a glass of cola and then has them attempt to solve 15 math problems. He finds that people who drink caffeine beforehand solve more math problems than those who drink water beforehand. Mark decides to conduct the exact same study again to ensure that he can find the same difference between the groups a second time. This study is known as a: a. direct replication. b. replication-plus-extension. c. conceptual replication. d. secondary replication. 7. Which of the following can direct replication studies change? a. The dependent variable b. The study procedures c. The participants d. The independent variable 8. Which of the following is true of a scientific literature? a. It comprises studies conducted by a single researcher. b. It comprises studies that have tested the exact same variable. c. It comprises studies conducted all in the same year. d. It comprises studies conducted with different methods. 9. RESEARCH STUDY 14.2: Cindy decides to conduct a meta-analysis examining the relationship between daily stress and cardiovascular health for her senior psychology research project. Which of the following is NOT a step Cindy will do in conducting her meta-analysis? a. Collect all the studies that have been conducted on daily stress and cardiovascular health b. Measure daily stress and cardiovascular health in several new samples of participants c. Calculate an effect size d. Contact other researchers for unpublished studies 10. RESEARCH STUDY 14.2: Cindy decides to conduct a meta-analysis examining the relationship between daily stress and cardiovascular health for her senior psychology research project. Cindy’s advisor recommends that she contact several researchers in the field for articles that were not published and/or that found null effects. Doing this will address which of the following? a. The file drawer problem b. The need for overestimation c. The lack of reporting significant findings d. Ecological validity 11. Which of the following is a reason that psychologists especially value meta-analyses? a. Meta-analyses eliminate the need for replications. b. Meta-analyses allow researchers to examine the strength of a relationship. 6 c. Meta-analyses are immune to threats to internal validity. d. Meta-analyses always take less time to conduct. 12. Responsible journalists do which of the following as it pertains to discussing replicability? a. They report only on studies that have been directly replicated. b. They report findings only from meta-analyses. c. They provide readers with a sense of the entire literature as well as recent studies. d. They provide readers with statistical values from each study. 13. Which of the following types of study support external validity? a. A study using non-randomly selected participants b. A study that adds a new independent variable c. A study that is a direct replication d. A failed replication study 14. When generalizing the results of a sample to a population, which of the following is the most important question to ask? a. Where were the participants tested? b. How many participants were in the sample? c. How were the participants sampled? d. Do the participants come from the “real world”? 15. Which of the following is another term for ecological validity? a. Mundane realism b. Everyday realism c. Experimental realism d. Cultural realism 16. Which of the following is true of theory-testing mode? a. It is related to the theory-data cycle. b. The priority is external validity. c. The focus is primarily on testing frequency claims. d. Few psychological studies are of the theory-testing type. 17. Which of the following studies is most likely to be conducted in generalization mode? a. Examining whether dog ownership decreases stress levels b. Exploring the relationship between weight and number of fast-food restaurants in one’s neighborhood c. Determining how frequently people report fighting with their bosses d. Investigating whether there is a causal link between receiving cognitive therapy and increased coping skills 18. Which of the following claims is always researched in generalization mode? a. Association claims b. Causal claims c. Frequency claims d. Experimental claims 19. In a previous correlational study, Dr. Lafayette has found that owning dogs is associated with lower levels of daily stress in a sample of returning war veterans. Which of the 7 following would constitute a shift from theory-testing mode to generalization mode? a. Conducting a study on the same sample of war veterans, this time using a different measure of daily stress b. Conducting a study examining the stress reduction mechanism c. Conducting an experimental study in which he assigns people to own a dog or not d. Conducting a study on dog ownership using a sample of elderly participants from a local retirement home 20. psychology is a subdiscipline of psychology that works primarily in the generalization mode. a. Clinical b. Experimental c. Social d. Cultural 21. Which of the following is true of cultural psychology? a. Its researchers function only in theory-testing mode. b. Its main focus is to disprove theories. c. It typically finds support for a theory across different cultural contexts. d. It starts with the assumption that theories apply to all humans, regardless of culture. 22. According to the textbook, which of the following is a component of WEIRD people? a. Women b. Educated c. Interdependent d. Republican 23. According to the textbook, what is the problem with WEIRD samples? a. They are not very representative of the world’s population. b. They are not good for theory-testing mode. c. They are not used frequently enough. d. They are not very easy to measure. 24. A study conducted in the “real world” is often said to be conducted in: a. mundane surroundings. b. a field setting. c. an ecological situation. d. authentic localities. 25. Which of the following is an advantage of studies that are conducted in real-world settings? a. They have a high degree of internal validity. b. They are more important than studies conducted in laboratories. c. They are high in ecological validity. d. They automatically generalize to other situations. 26. RESEARCH STUDY 14.3: Dr. Grayson, a health psychologist, conducts a study examining whether people eat more when they are exposed to pictures of food than when they are not exposed to pictures of food. She goes to a fast-food restaurant in downtown Chicago that has pictures of menu items on its menu board and measures the amount of food ordered during the lunch rush (11:30 a.m.–1:30 p.m.) on Tuesday. On Thursday, she does the same thing but at a fast-food restaurant that does not have pictures on its menu board (about two blocks away from 8 the first restaurant). She finds that the restaurant with pictures of food sells more food than the restaurant that does not have pictures.Because Dr. Grayson conducted her study in a field setting, which of the following is an advantage of her study? a. It automatically generalizes to other situations (e.g., fancy restaurants, cafeterias). b. It automatically generalizes to other people. c. It removes all threats to internal validity. d. It has a high degree of ecological validity. 27. Dr. Grayson wants to conduct her study again, but this time she wants to conduct it in her laboratory. She wants people to feel and act the same way in her laboratory that they would when facing ordering choices in an actual fast-food restaurant. To this end, she must try to enhance which of the following? a. Experimental realism b. Generalizability c. Statistical validity d. Cultural relativity 28. Dr. Grayson decides to conduct her study again, but in the new study, she studies people at a sit-down restaurant, and she manipulates whether the menu they use at the table has pictures or not. This is known as which of the following? a. Statistical replication b. Conceptual replication c. Replication-plus-extension d. Direct replication 29. Dr. Grayson would most be able to generalize her findings to which of the following populations? a. People from Chicago b. People who live in downtown Chicago c. People who eat lunch at fast-food restaurants d. People who eat out at restaurants 30. Which of the following is true of experimental realism? a. It exists only in field settings. b. It is a synonymous term for mundane realism. c. It supports external validity. d. It is only important in generalization mode. 31. Why do studies conducted in theory-testing mode de-emphasize ecological validity? a. Ecological validity is never important. b. Internal validity is the highest priority for theory testing. c. Testing a theory never requires realism. d. Theories do not need to explain the behavior of everyone. 32. In a conceptual replication, the are the same, but the is/are different from the original study. a. variables; operationalization b. independent variables; dependent variables c. researchers; outcomes d. methods; participants 33. Another word for replicable is: 9 a. valid. b. reproducible. c. reliable. d. scientific. 34. In a conceptual replication, which of the following is allowed to be dissimilar from the original study? a. The dependent variable in the study b. The independent variable in the study c. The procedures of the study d. The moderators used in the study 35. What does it mean when a study cannot be replicated by an independent researcher? a. The replication was done incorrectly. b. The independent researcher’s study is superior. c. The importance of the finding should be interpreted cautiously. d. The topic should no longer be researched. 36. Replicability helps interrogate which of the four big validities? a. Construct validity b. External validity c. Internal validity d. Statistical validity 37. Who determines the population to which a study’s findings generalize? a. The participants b. Journalists c. The IRB d. The researcher 38. A researcher in theory-testing mode focuses on validity, while a researcher in generalization mode focuses on validity. a. internal; external b. external; internal c. external; statistical d. statistical; external 39. Which of the following claims is most likely to be made in generalization mode? a. “A majority of women report considering infidelity at least once during their marriages.” b. “Men are more likely than women to report considering infidelity.” c. “Parental divorce is associated with greater likelihood of infidelity.” d. “Being exposed to attractive individuals increases thoughts of infidelity.” 40. A cultural psychologist would be most interested in which of the following sets of participants? a. A sample of community college students b. A sample of 12-year-old children c. A sample of homeless veterans d. A sample of Taiwanese grandparents 41. Dr. Fern recently collected data for a study examining whether an intervention targeting coping strategies can reduce depression. After analyzing the results, she finds no effect of her intervention on depression symptoms. Which of the following would you recommend 10 she do next? a. Preregister her study so she can publish the null findings. b. Add more participants because her initial sample size may have been too small. c. Contact journal editors to see if they will publish null results. d. Try a different analytic approach. 42. Which of the following is a benefit of a meta-analysis compared to other types of publications? a. Meta-analyses allow for calculation of effect size across multiple studies. b. Only meta-analyses allow for examination of moderators. c. Meta-analysis is the only type of publication that synthesizes an entire scientific Literature. d. Meta-analyses always avoid the file drawer problem. 43. Which of the following MUST be done before meta-analyses can occur? a. Only direct replications b. Cultural psychology replications done on the topic c. Collection of the scientific literature on a topic d. Publication of the topic in the popular media 44. Which of the following is true of p-hacking? a. It is considered a common and acceptable practice. b. It is always done intentionally. c. It is the same as HARKing. d. It can involve running a different analysis than originally proposed 45. Some studies may not replicate because the original study used questionable scientific practices. Which of the following is a way open science practices attempt to deal with this problem? a. Using larger sample sizes b. Requiring scientists to make their data and materials available for review c. Conducting direct replications d. Encouraging preregistration 46. Preregistration occurs at which point in the scientific process? a. Before data collection b. Before developing hypotheses c. After publication d. After replication 47. In open science, open data are more concerned with , while open materials are more interested in . a. construct validity; statistical validity b. replication; construct validity c. generalizability; statistical validity d. statistical validity; replication 48. A conceptual replication study, which supported a previous United States-based study on the association between self-associations and social behaviors, was just published. This study used a different method to assess social behavior and randomly sampled 50 people from the population in Canada, where the study was conducted. How might a cultural psychologist 11 respond to the new article about this study? a. With enthusiasm, since replication studies are rare b. With skepticism, because this theory may not apply to more culturally diverse populations c. With skepticism, since this study used a small sample size d. With enthusiasm, because of the inclusion of one culturally diverse sample 49. Which of the following studies would be least likely to be influenced by cultural differences? a. A study of the association between depression and cultural beliefs about mental health b. A study examining rates of divorce across different cultures c. A study examining the effect of parent education on child socialization d. A study examining motor responses of newborns 1. Which of the following is NOT true of control variables? a. Control variables help define the control group. b. Control variables help establish internal validity. c. Control variables are essential in experimental designs. d. Control variables are kept the same for all participants. 2. When conducting an experiment, what is provided by the independent variable? a. A comparison group b. Random assignment c. Proof of temporal precedence d. Confirmation of internal validity 3 Dr. Kline, an environmental psychologist, conducts a study to examine whether visiting zoos causes people to have more positive attitudes toward environmental conservation. He asks a group of 45 people attending the zoo on a Saturday morning about their attitudes. He finds that 69% of people report having a positive attitude after their visit. Which of the following is true? a. His control group is people who did not visit the zoo. b. He does not have a dependent variable. c. He can make a strong causal claim about the effect of zoo visits on environmental attitudes. d. His study does not qualify as an experiment. 4. A threat to internal validity occurs only if a potential design confound varies with the independent variable. a. haphazardly b. systematically C. spontaneously 5. Which of the following is NOT true of selection effects? a. Selection effects are a type of confound. b. Selection effects can occur when experimenters allow participants to choose their own treatment group. 12 c. Selection effects are unimportant for interrogating internal validity. d. Selection effects can occur when researchers assign one type of person to one treatment group and another type of person to another treatment group. 6. Experiments use random assignment to avoid which of the following? a. Random selection b. Selection effects c. Carryover effects d. Demand characteristics 7. Which of the following research designs is used to address possible selection effects? a. Posttest-only designs b. Matched-groups designs c. Pretest/posttest designs d. Correlational designs 8. Using a matched-group design is especially important in which of the following cases? a. When you have only a few people in your study b. When you have at least three levels/conditions of the independent variable c. When you do not have a control group d. When you have a complex dependent variable 9. An independent-groups design is also known as a design. a. between-subjects b. matched-groups C. within-groups d. Mixed 9. which of the following is NOT a reason that a researcher might choose a pretest/posttest design? a. To ensure that random assignment made the treatment/comparison groups equal b. To determine how groups change over the course of the experiment c. To allow for the study of spontaneous behaviors d. To make a strong causal claim 27. Dr. Alfonse, a developmental psychologist, conducts a study to determine whether children prefer books with drawn illustrations or photographs. A group of 30 preschoolers are shown two copies of a book (Ferpinanp the Bull) at the same time. Although the story is the same, one book is illustrated with drawings and the other is illustrated with photos. Students are then asked to indicate which book they prefer. This is an example of which of the following designs? a. Longitudinal design b. Repeated-measures design c. Concurrent-measures design d. Posttest-only design 13 28. All of the following are advantages of within-groups designs EXCEPT a. Participants in the treatment/control groups will be equivalent. b. It is less time-consuming for the participants. c. It gives researchers more power to find differences between conditions. d. They require fewer participants. 29. Which of the following is a threat to internal validity found in within-groups designs but not in independent-groups designs? a. Selection effects b. Design confounds c. Demand characteristics d. Practice effects 30. is used to control order effects in an experiment. a. Random assignment b. A design confound c. Increasing demand characteristics d. Counterbalancing 31. Which of the following is an advantage of within-groups designs? a. These designs avoid order effects. b. These designs avoid demand characteristics. c. These designs are always possible. d. These designs rely on fewer participants. 32. RESEARCH STUDY 10.2: Dr. Dormeur studies sleep and sleep disorders. She is curious as to whether technology exposure before bedtime causes people to fall asleep more slowly. She recruits a sample of 60 middle-aged women from a local church who reported no history of sleep problems. She creates three conditions. All participants come to the sleep lab for three nights in a row and experience all three conditions. In the first condition (A), participants were asked to play an online game (Candy Crush) on an iPad for 10 minutes prior to going to bed. In the second condition (B), participants were asked to read an article using an iPad that discussed tricks and tips for improving one’s score on Canpy Crush (which took about 10 minutes). In the third condition (C), participants were asked to read a newspaper article about the inventor of Candy Cruoh (which took about 10 minutes). With the use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. Which of the following designs is Dr. Dormeur using? a. Pretest/posttest design b. Concurrent-measures design c. Repeated-measures design d. Posttest-only design 14 33. Dr. Dormeur’s participants have only agreed to participate in the study for three nights each. Which type of counterbalancing can she use? a. Partial counterbalancing b. Full counterbalancing c. Minimal counterbalancing d. Carryover counterbalancing 34. Given that there are three conditions/levels of the independent variable, how many orders of the conditions are possible in Dr. Dormeur’s study? a. Three b. Six c. Nine d. Twelve 35. Dr. Dormeur was concerned that asking participants how long it took them to fall asleep would lead them to suspect that was the purpose of the study. Her decision to measure how long it took participants to go to sleep using the EEG instead of self-report was meant to decrease which of the following? a. Order effects b. Selection effects c. Demand characteristics d. Counterbalancing effects 36. Practice effects and carryover effects are examples of effects. a. order b. scientific C. between-person 37. The ability for a study to reveal a statistically significant difference between the levels of an independent variable when one truly exists is known as: a. covariance. b. power. C. effect size. 38. What is the primary difference between pretest/posttest designs and within-groups designs? a. The number of participants used b. The number of times the dependent variable is measured c. The number of levels of the independent variable participants are exposed to d. There is no difference between the two designs. 39. Random selection enhances validity and random assignment enhances validity. b. external; external 15 C. internal; external D. external; internal 40. Generally, what is the main priority for experimental studies? a. Construct validity b. External validity c. Internal validity 41. A variable that the researcher controls is a variable. a. measured b. manipulated C. dependent d. Selection 42. In true experiments, is to dependent variable as is to independent variable. a. measuring; manipulating b. controlling; manipulating C. recording; measuring D. manipulating; measuring 43. Which of the following phrases describes a manipulated variable? a. “Participants wrote down how many text messages they had sent the day before.” b. “Researchers recorded whether participants volunteered to help the student in need or did not volunteer.” c. “Participants were placed in the high tempo music condition, the low tempo music condition, or the no music condition based on which color card they randomly drew from a deck.” d. “Researchers recorded the length of time participants took to complete the anagrams.” 44. When interrogating the construct validity of the dependent variable in an experiment, which of the following questions should be asked? a. “How well was this variable manipulated?” b. “How well was this variable controlled by the experimenter?” c. “How well was this variable explained to participants?” d. “How well was this variable measured?” 45. Considering a measure’s face validity is: a. a good way to interrogate the construct validity of the dependent variable. b. not necessary in experiments. C. only done if an experiment uses observational measures. D. the first step in establishing causation. 46. Researchers conducting an experiment can ensure temporal precedence by doing which of the following? 16 a. Having a control group b. Manipulating the cause before measuring the effect c. Running a manipulation check d. Establishing covariance 50. What is the difference between concurrent-measures designs and repeated-measures designs? a. Concurrent-measures design is an independent-groups design; repeated-measures design is a within-group design. b. Concurrent-measures designs expose participants to the levels of the independent variable at roughly the same time; repeated-measures designs expose participants to the levels of the independent variable sequentially. c. Concurrent-measures designs can have any number of levels of an independent variable; repeated-measures designs can only have two levels of the independent variable. d. There is no difference; they are two terms for the same design. 17