Psychology - History and Approaches

History and Approaches (unit 1) 1. Trephination a. Stone Age humans carving holes through the skull to release evil spirits 2. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) a. 1879- set up the first psychological laboratory i. near university at Leipzig, Germany b. Trained subjects in introspection i. asked them to accurately record their cognitive reactions to sample stimuli c. Developed the theory of structuralism d. the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations 3. William James (1842-1910) a. 1890- published the first psychology textbook “The Principles of Psychology” b. Examined how the structures Wundt identified function in our lives (functionalism) 4. Gestalt Psychology a. Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) b. Principles i. The whole is more than the sum of its parts ii. Argued against dividing human thought and behavior into discrete structures iii. Tried to examine a person’s total experience 1. the way we experience the world is more than an accumulation of perceptual experiences 5. Psychoanalysis a. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) i. Revolutionizes psychology with his psychoanalytic theory ii. Believed he discovered the unconscious mind 1. builds up through repression iii. To understand human thought and behavior, we must examine the unconscious mind through: 1. dream analysis 2. word association 3. psychoanalytic theory b. Definitions of Terms i. Unconscious mind 1. a part of our mind over which we do not have conscious control 2. determines, in part, how we think and behave ii. Repression 1. the pushing down into the unconscious the events and feelings that our conscious mind can’t handle 6. Behaviorism a. 1920s-1960s i. Dominant school of thought b. John Watson (1878-1958) i. Studied Pavlov ii. For psychology to be a science, it must limit itself to observable phenomena iii. Behaviorist c. Principles i. Psychologists should look only at behavior and the causes of it 1. stimuli (environmental events) 2. responses (physical reactions) 3. NOT consciousness d. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) i. Expanded behaviorism to include reinforcement ii. Reinforcement 1. environmental stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain responses 7. Humanist Perspective a. Principles i. Stressed individual choice and free will ii. We choose most of our behaviors 1. these choices are guided by psychological, emotional, and spiritual needs iii. The theories are not easily tested by the scientific method b. Figures i. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) ii. Carl Rogers (1902-1987) c. Deterministic Behaviorists i. Contrast with humanists ii. All behaviors are caused by past conditioning 8. Psychoanalytic Perspective a. Characteristics i. Holds all of Freud’s beliefs ii. Very controversial 9. Biopsychology (Neuroscience) Perspective a. Principles i. Explain human thought and behavior strictly in terms of biological processes ii. Human cognition and reactions 1. caused by genes, hormones, neurotransmitters 10. Evolutionary (Darwanian) Perspective a. Principles i. Examine human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection 1. traits that benefit survival get passed on ii. “Sociobiology” 11. Behavioral Perspective a. Principles i. Explain human thought and behavior in terms of conditioning ii. Look strictly at observable behaviors and what reactions organisms get in response to them 12. Cognitive Perspective a. Principles i. Examine human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events ii. The rules that we use to view the world are important to understanding why we think and behave the way we do 13. Social-Cultural (Sociocultural) Perspective a. Principles i. Look at how our thoughts and behaviors vary from people living in other cultures ii. Emphasize the influence culture has on the way we think and act 14. Eclectic Perspective a. Principles i. Claims that no one perspective has all the answers to the variety of human thought and behavior ii. Each perspective has valid explanations Research Methods (unit 2) 1. Overview a. Hindsight Bias i. Upon hearing research findings, the tendency to believe that you knew it all along b. Applied Research i. Has clear, practical applications c. Basic Research i. Explores questions that are of interest to psychologists ii. Not intended to have immediate real world applications 2. Terminology a. Hypothesis i. Expresses a relationship between two variables b. Variables i. The dependent variable depends on the independent variable ii. Things that can vary among the participants in the research 3. Theory a. Aims to explain some phenomenon b. Allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses with the hope of collecting data that support the theory 4. Operational Definitions a. Explanations of how variables will be measured 5. Validity and Reliability a. Research is valid when: i. it measures what the researcher set out to measure ii. it is accurate b. Research is reliable when: i. it can be replicated ii. it is consistent 6. Participants (Subjects) a. The individuals on which the research will be conducted 7. Sampling a. The process by which participants are selected 8. Sample a. The group of participants 9. Population a. Includes anyone or anything that could possibly be selected in the sample 10. Random Selection a. Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected b. Increases the likelihood of a representative sample c. Allows researchers to generalize about their results d. Stratified Sampling i. Allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria (ex. race) ii. Sample size uses proportions equal to that of the population 11. Experimental Method a. Laboratory Experiments i. Conducted in a lab ii. Advantage- highly controlled b. Field Experiments i. Conducted out in the world ii. Advantage- more realistic c. Experiment i. Only way to show a cause-effect relationship ii. Preferred research method d. Confounding Variables i. Any difference between the experimental and control conditions that could affect the dependent variable 1. (other than the independent variable) e. Assignment i. The process by which participants are put into the experimental or control group f. Random Assignment i. Each participant has an equal chance of being placed into any group ii. Limits the effect of participant-relevant confounding principles g. Group Matching i. Divide the sample into groups based on some criteria and assign half of each group to each condition ii. ex: gender h. Situation-Relevant Confounding Variable i. Ex: time of day, weather, presence of others ii. Each condition has to be equivalent with the exception of the independent variable i. Experimenter Bias i. A situation-relevant confounding variable ii. The unconscious tendency for research members to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming the hypothesis j. Double-Blind Procedure i. Neither the participants nor the researchers are able to affect the outcome of the research ii. Eliminates experimenter and subject bias k. Single Blind i. Only the subjects don’t know to which group they’ve been assigned ii. Minimizes demand characteristics and participant bias iii. Demand characteristics 1. cues about the purpose of a study that affect the participants’ responses iv. Response/participant bias 1. the tendency for subjects to behave in certain ways 2. social desirability a. the tendency to try to give politically correct answers l. Experimental Group i. Gets the treatment operationalized in the independent variable m. Control Group i. Gets none of the independent variable ii. Without it, knowing the effects of the experimental treatment is impossible n. Hawthorne Effect i. Selecting a group of people on whom to experiment affects the performance of that group, regardless of what is done to them o. Placebo Effect i. Controlled by the placebo method 1. giving the control group an inert drug p. Counterbalancing i. Using participants as their own control group ii. To eliminate order effects, have half do one order, the other half the other, then switch 12. Correlational Method a. Correlations i. Express a relationship between two variables ii. Positive 1. the presence of one predicts the presence of the other iii. Negative 1. the presence of one predicts the absence of the other iv. Do not imply causation b. Ex-Post Facto Study i. Cause and effect cannot be determined ii. The assignment of the independent variable is predetermined iii. Controls all other aspects of the research process c. Survey Method i. Asking people to fill out surveys ii. Investigates relationships, but not causation iii. No independent or dependent variables iv. Participant-relevant confounding variables can’t be controlled for v. Controlling for situation-relevant confounding variables 1. bring all participants to one place at one time to complete the survey vi. Response rate 1. people who send the survey back 13. Naturalistic Observation a. Naturalistic Observation i. Observe participants in their natural habitats without interacting with them ii. Control is sacrificed iii. Goal 1. to get a realistic and rich picture of the participants’ behavior b. Disparity with Field Experiments i. In field experiments: 1. manipulate independent variable 2. attempt to eliminate all confounding variables 14. Case Studies a. Case Study i. Used to get a full, detailed picture of one participant or a small group of participants ii. Findings can’t be generalized to a larger population iii. Often used to research clinical disorders 15. Descriptive Statistics a. Frequency Distributions i. Can easily be turned into: 1. frequency polygons 2. histograms ii. Y-axis represents frequency iii. X-axis represents what you’re graphing b. Central Tendency i. Mean, median, mode ii. Mean most common, but most affected by outliers/extreme scores c. Outliers Skew Distributions i. Positively skewed 1. has high outliers 2. contains more low scores 3. the mean is higher than the median ii. Negatively skewed 1. low outliers 2. the mean is less than the median d. Measures of Variability i. Depict the diversity of a distribution ii. Range 1. highest score minus lowest score iii. Variance and standard deviation 1. relate the average distance of any score in the distribution from the mean 2. the higher they are, the more spread out the distribution 3. the square root of the variance is the standard deviation iv. Z-scores 1. measure the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviation v. vi. 2. scores above the mean have a positive z-score 3. 600 on SAT: z-score of +1 Normal curve 1. one standard deviation from the mean- 68% of scores 2. two standard deviations- 95% 3. three standard deviations- 99.7% Percentiles 1. indicate the distance of a score from zero 2. 50th percentile = z-score of 0 16. Correlations a. Correlation Coefficient i. Range from -1 to +1 ii. -1 = perfect negative correlation iii. +1 = perfect positive correlation iv. 0 = weakest possible correlation b. Scatter Plot i. Correlations can be graphed using a scatter plot ii. Line of best fit (regression line) 1. drawn through it 17. Inferential Statistics a. Purpose i. To determine whether findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected b. Sampling Error i. The extent to which the sample differs from the population c. Tests i. ANOVAs, MANOVAs, t-tests ii. Consider the magnitude of difference and size of sample iii. Yield a p-value 1. the smaller, the more significant the results 2. p = .05 is the cut off for statistically significant results a. 5% chance that results occurred by chance 18. APA Ethical Guidelines a. Institutional Review Board (IRB) i. Any type of academic research must first propose the study to this ethics board b. Animal Research: Requirements for Psychological Studies i. They must have a clear scientific purpose 1. research must answer a specific and important scientific question a. animals chosen must be best suited to answer it ii. Must care for and house animals in a humane way iii. Must acquire animal subjects legally 1. purchased from accredited companies 2. trapped in a humane way iv. Must design experimental procedures that employ the least amount of suffering feasible c. Human Research i. Coercion ii. iii. iv. v. 1. participation must be voluntary Informed consent 1. participants must know that they are involved in research and give consent 2. no extreme deception about the nature of the study Anonymity/confidentiality 1. identity and actions of participants can’t be revealed 2. can’t identify participants as the source of any of the data Risk 1. participants can’t be placed at significant mental/physical risk Debriefing procedures 1. participants must be told the purpose of the study and provided with ways to contact the researchers about study results Biological Bases of Behavior (unit 3) 1. Neuroanatomy a. Neuroanatomy i. The study of the parts and functions of nerves ii. Neurons iii. individual nerve cells 2. Parts of the Neuron a. Dendrites i. root like parts of the cell ii. stretch out from the cell body iii. grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons b. Cell body (soma) i. contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell necessary for its life c. Axon i. wire like structure ending in the terminal buttons ii. extend from the cell body iii. Myelin sheath 1. a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses iv. Terminal buttons 1. end buttons, terminal branches of axon, synaptic knobs 2. branched end of the axon 3. contains neurotransmitters v. Neurotransmitters 1. chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate vi. Synapse 1. the space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron 3. How a Neuron “Fires” a. Resting State i. Neuron has negative charge with positive ions surrounding the cell b. Steps i. Neuron is stimulated 1. it releases neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the receiving neuron iii. If the threshold is reached, the cell membrane of the receiving neuron becomes permeable 1. positive ions rush in 2. action potential iv. Axons release neurotransmitters to another neuron c. All-or-None Principle i. The neuron will fire completely or not at all d. Neurotransmitters i. Acetylcholine 1. motor movement 2. lack → Alzheimer’s ii. Dopamine 1. motor movement and alertness 2. lack → Parkinson’s disease 3. too much → schizophrenia iii. Endorphins 1. pain control 2. involved in addiction iv. Serotonin 1. mood control 2. lack → clinical depression 4. Nervous System a. Afferent Neurons (Sensory Neurons) i. Take information from the senses to the brain b. Interneurons i. Send information to elsewhere in the brain or to efferent neurons c. Efferent (Motor) Neurons i. Take information from the brain to the rest of the body d. Central Nervous System (CNS) i. Consists of the brain and the spinal cord 1. spinal cord- a bundle of nerves e. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) i. All nerves not encased in bone ii. Somatic 1. controls voluntary muscle movements iii. Autonomic 1. controls responses to stress 2. sympathetic arouses 3. parasympathetic calms iv. Our pain reflexes help prevent us from harming ourselves 5. Brain a. Ways to Study it i. Accidents 1. studying the effects ii. Lesions ii. 1. the removal or destruction of part of the brain 2. studying the effects iii. Electroencephalogram (EEG) 1. detects brain waves 2. examines brain waves in different stages of consciousness, especially sleep iv. Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scan 1. sophisticated x-ray 2. shows brain structure 3. uses x-ray cameras to get a 3-D picture v. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 1. shows brain structure 2. uses magnetic fields to measure the density and location of brain material 3. no radiation 4. more detailed than a CAT scan vi. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan 1. shows how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain are using 2. measures which parts of the brain are most active during certain tasks vii. Functional MRI 1. ties brain structure to brain activity during cognitive tasks 2. combines elements of MRI and PET b. Brain Structure and Function i. Hindbrain 1. controls basic biological functions that keep us alive 2. medulla a. controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing 3. pons a. controls facial expressions b. connects the hindbrain with the rest of the brain 4. cerebellum a. “little brain” b. coordinates muscle movement c. on the bottom of the brain ii. Midbrain 1. coordinates simple movements with sensory information 2. integrates sensory information and muscle movements 3. reticular formation a. controls general body arousal and the ability to focus our attention Sensation and Perception (unit 4) 1. Overview a. Transduction i. Sensory messages are transformed into neural impulses ii. then sent to the thalamus, which sends them to other parts of the brain iii. exception: smell b. Sensory Adaptation i. Decreasing responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation c. Sensory Habituation i. Our perception of sensations is partially due to how focused we are on them d. Cocktail-Party Phenomenon i. Someone across the room says your name ii. Your attention involuntarily switches to them e. Sensation and Perception i. Sensation 1. the activation of our senses ii. Perception 1. the process of understanding these sensations 2. Energy Senses a. Vision i. Step one: gathering light 1. light is reflected off of objects and gathered by the eye 2. the color we perceive depends on: a. intensity- how much energy the light contains. determines brightness b. wavelength- determines hue ii. Step two: within the eye 1. cornea a. light first enters the eye through it b. helps to focus the light c. a protective covering 2. pupil a. light goes through it after the cornea 3. iris a. determines how much light gets in the eye by controlling the size of the pupil 4. lens a. through accommodation, light that enters the pupil is focused by it b. curved and flexible c. as light passes through it, the image is flipped upside down and inverted 5. retina a. the focused inverted image projects on it iii. Step three: transduction 1. occurs when light activates neurons in the retina 2. cones and rods a. the first layer of cells in the retina b. directly activated by light c. cones- activated by color, clustered around the fovea d. rods- peripheral vision, respond to black and white, outnumber cones 3. bipolar and ganglion cells a. when enough cones and rods fire, they activate the next layer of bipolar cells b. if enough bipolar cells fire, the next layer of ganglion cells is activated 4. ganglion cells a. the axons of it form the optic nerve that sends impulses to the LGN 5. lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) a. in the thalamus b. sends messages to the visual cortex 6. blind spot a. where the optic nerve leaves the retina b. has no cones or rods 7. optic nerve a. impulses from the left side of each retina go to the left hemisphere of the brain, right right b. optic chiasm- spot where the nerves cross each other iv. Step four: in the brain 1. feature detectors a. impulses travel from the retina to the visual cortex to them b. Hubel and Weisel c. vertical lines, curves, motion, etc. d. visual perception is a combination of all features b. Theories of Color Vision i. Trichromatic theory 1. we have three types of cones: a. detect blue, red, or green b. these are activated in combinations to produce other colors 2. can’t explain afterimages or color blindness ii. Opponent-process theory 1. the sensory receptors arranged in the retina come in pairs a. red/green, blue/yellow, black/white 2. when one sensor is stimulated, the other is inhibited from firing c. Hearing i. Sound waves 1. created by vibrations which travel through the air 2. collected by our ears 3. transduction → neural impulses 4. amplitude a. height. determines loudness in decibels 5. frequency a. length b. determines pitch (megahertz) ii. Process 1. sound waves are collected in the pinna (outer ear) 2. waves travel down ear/auditory canal 3. they reach the eardrum (tympanic membrane) a. a thin membrane that vibrates as sound waves hit it b. connects with the hammer (malleus) which is connected to the anvil (incus) which connects to the stirrup (stapes) → these 3 small bones = ossicles 4. the ossicles transmit the vibrations to the oval window a. attached to cochlea, which is shaped like a snail’s shell and filled with fluid 5. as the oval window vibrates, the fluid moves 6. hair cells on the basilar membrane (floor of cochlea) move a. the hair cells are connected to the organ of corti (neurons activated by movement of hair cells) 7. transduction occurs a. organ of corti fires b. auditory nerve sends these impulses to the brain d. Pitch Theories i. Place theory 1. hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located 2. some bend to high pitches, others to low 3. better explains how we sense higher pitches ii. Frequency theory 1. the hair cells fire at different rates 2. explains lower tones e. Deafness i. Conduction deafness 1. problem with the system of conducting the sound to the cochlea 2. in ear canal, eardrum, ossicles, or oval window ii. Sensorineural (nerve) deafness 1. hair cells in the cochlea are damaged 2. often results from loud noise 3. hair cells can’t regenerate f. Touch i. Some nerve endings respond to temperature, others to pressure ii. Our brain interprets the amount of indentation (temperature change) as intensity of touch iii. Nerve endings are very concentrated in the fingertips iv. Pain receptors will fire when other receptors are stimulated sharply v. Pain warns us of danger vi. Gate-control theory 1. some pain messages have a higher priority a. gate is open to it, and shut to lower priority messages 2. endorphins a. swing the gate shut b. natural endorphins control pain 3. Chemical Senses a. Taste (Gustation) i. Chemicals from food are absorbed by taste buds 1. located on papillae 2. tastes: sweet, salty, sour, bitter a. some taste buds respond more intensely to one 3. the more densely packed the taste buds, the more chemical absorbed → intense taste b. Smell (Olfaction) i. Process 1. molecules of substances rise into the air 2. molecules are drawn into the nose 3. they settle into a mucous membrane 4. absorbed by receptor cells ii. Olfactory bulb 1. receptor cells linked to it 2. gathers messages from the olfactory receptor cells a. sends this information to the brain 3. nerve fibers from it connect to the brain in the amygdala and hippocampus a. may explain why smell triggers memories 4. Body Position Senses a. Vestibular Sense i. Tells us about how our body is oriented in space ii. Process: 1. three semicircular canals a. tubes are partially filled with fluid b. give brain feedback about body orientation 2. body position changes 3. fluids in canals move 4. sensors in canals move 5. movement of hair cells 6. neurons activated a. impulses go to brain b. Kinesthetic Sense i. Gives us feedback about the position and orientation of specific body parts 5. Perception a. Psychophysics i. The study of the interaction between the sensations we receive and our experience of them b. Thresholds i. Absolute threshold 1. the minimum amount of stimulus we can detect 50% of the time 2. subliminal- below the absolute threshold ii. Difference threshold (just noticeable difference) 1. smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we detect a change 2. computed by Weber’s Law a. psychophysicist Ernest Weber b. the change needed is proportional to the intensity of the original stimulus c. hearing- 5% d. vision- 8% 6. Perceptual Theories a. Signal Detection Theory i. Investigates the effects of distractions and interference we experience while perceiving the world ii. Tries to predict what we’ll perceive among competing stimuli iii. Takes into account response criteria: 1. motivations and expectations 2. also called receiver operating characteristics iv. False positive 1. we think we perceive a stimulus that isn’t there v. False negative 1. not perceiving a stimulus that is present b. Top-Down Processing i. We perceive by filling in gaps in what we sense with background knowledge ii. Schemata 1. created by experience 2. mental representations of how we expect the world to be 3. influence how we perceive the world 4. can create a perceptual set a. a predisposition to perceive something in a certain way iii. Backmasking 1. supposed hidden messages musicians played backwards in their music c. Bottom-Up Processing (Feature Analysis) i. Perception starts at the bottom with the individual characteristics of the image ii. Puts characteristics together into our final perception iii. More accurate than top-down processing 7. Principles of Visual Perception a. Figure-Ground Relationship i. Figure- objects ii. Ground- surrounding background b. Gestalt Rules i. We normally perceive objects as groups, not isolated elements ii. Factors that influence how we group objects: 1. proximity a. objects close together → perceived as belonging to the same group 2. similarity a. objects are similar in appearance → perceived as part of the same group 3. continuity a. objects that form a continuous form are grouped together 4. closure a. objects that make up a recognizable image are grouped, even if the mind needs to fill in gaps b. similar to top-down processing c. Constancy i. Constancy 1. our ability to maintain a constant perception of an object even as sensation from it changes ii. Size constancy 1. we keep a constant size in mind for an object if we’re familiar with it a. we know it doesn’t grow or shrink as distance changes iii. Shape constancy 1. we know the shape of an object remains constant, even as retinal images change iv. Brightness constancy 1. we perceive objects as being a constant color even as the light reflected from them changes d. Perceived Motion i. Our brains can perceive objects at rest to be moving 1. stroboscopic effect a. images in a series of still pictures presented at a certain speed seem to move (flip books) 2. phi phenomenon a. a series of light bulbs turned on and off at a particular rate appear to be one moving light 3. autokinetic effect a. spot of light is projected on a wall in a dark room b. it appears to move if you stare at it e. Depth Cues i. Visual cliff experiment 1. Eleanor Gibson 2. an infant that can crawl won’t cross the cliff 3. infants have depth perception ii. Monocular cues 1. depth cues that need only one eye 2. linear perspective a. parallel lines converge with distance 3. relative size cue a. larger objects appear closer 4. interposition cue a. objects that block the view to other objects must be closer 5. texture gradient a. we can see more details in the texture of objects that are closer 6. shadowing a. implies where the light source is iii. Binocular cues 1. depth cues that need both eyes 2. binocular (retinal) disparity a. the closer the object, the more disparity there will be between the images from each eye 3. convergence a. the more the eyes converge, the closer the object must be 8. The Effects of Culture on Perception a. Principle i. Some basic perceptual sets are learned from culture b. Muller-Lyer Illusion i. an optical illusion consisting of a stylized arrow. When viewers are asked to place a mark on the figure at the midpoint, they invariably place it more towards the "tail" end. States of Consciousness (Unit 5) 1. Overview a. Dualism vs. Monism i. Dualism 1. humans consist of thought and matter a. matter- everything that has substance b. thought - nonmaterial. Arises from, but is independent of the brain. Gives humans free will. ii. Monism 1. thought and matter are aspects of the same substance 2. thought stops existing when the body dies 2. Consciousness i. Our level of awareness about ourselves and our environment 3. Levels of Consciousness a. Mere-Exposure Effect i. We prefer stimuli that we have seen before over novel stimuli, even if we don’t consciously remember seeing it b. Priming i. Research participants respond more quickly/accurately to questions they’ve seen before, even if they don’t remember it c. Blind Sight i. One level of consciousness isn’t getting visual information ii. Their behavior demonstrates that another level can see iii. They report being blind d. Types of Levels i. Conscious level 1. information about yourself and your environment that you are aware of ii. Nonconscious level 1. body processes controlled by the mind that we’re not aware of iii. Preconscious level 1. information about yourself or your environment that you aren’t thinking about, but could be iv. Subconscious level 1. information of which we aren’t consciously aware 2. must exist due to behavior 3. proof: priming and mere exposure effect v. Unconscious level 1. some events/feelings that are unacceptable to the conscious mind are repressed into it 4. Sleep a. Sleep Cycle i. Circadian rhythm 1. metabolic and thought processes follow a pattern ii. Sleep onset 1. the period when we are falling asleep 2. possible mild hallucinations 3. Alpha waves a. produced when we are drowsy but awake iii. Theta waves 1. high frequency, low amplitude 2. as we go from awake to stage 1 to stage 2, they get slower and higher in amplitude 3. stage 1, stage 2, awake iv. Sleep spindles 1. stage 2 2. short bursts of rapid brain waves v. Delta sleep 1. stages 3 and 4 2. slow-wave sleep 3. Delta waves 4. the slower the waves, the deeper the sleep vi. REM sleep 1. dreams occur 2. improves memory 3. rapid eye movement 4. intense brain activity 5. paralysis, though a few muscle twitches 6. paradoxical sleep vii. REM rebound 1. if deprived of REM sleep the previous night, we will spend more time in REM b. Sleep Disorders i. Insomnia 1. recurring problems in falling or staying asleep 2. affects 10% of the population 3. sleeping pills disturb sleep patterns ii. Narcolepsy 1. periods of intense sleepiness 2. may fall asleep at unpredictable times 3. may fall right into REM 4. affects less than .001% of the population iii. Sleep apnea 1. as common as insomnia 2. causes you to stop breathing for short periods of time at night a. wake up slightly and gasp for air b. won’t remember waking up 3. affects attention, memory, energy 4. prevents deep sleep 5. high risk group: overweight men iv. Night terrors and somnambulism (sleep walking) 1. more common in children 2. early in the night; stage 4 3. not remembered in the morning c. Dreams i. Freudian psychoanalysis 1. emphasizes dream interpretation as a way to uncover information in the unconscious mind 2. dreams are wish fulfilling a. in dreams we act out our unconscious desires 3. manifest content a. the literal storyline of dreams b. latent content- the unconscious meaning of it c. the ego protects us from information in the unconscious mind… “protected sleep” ii. Activation-synthesis theory 1. dreams are the brain’s interpretation of what is happening physiologically during REM sleep iii. Information-processing theory 1. the function of REM is to integrate information processed during the day into our memory 2. support: a. stress increases the number and the intensity of our dreams b. dream content often relates to daily concerns c. babies REM more 5. Hypnosis a. Posthypnotic Amnesia i. Forgetting events that occurred while you were under hypnosis b. Posthypnotic Suggestion i. A suggestion that a hypnotized person behave in a certain way after hypnosis ends c. Role Theory i. During hypnosis, people act out the role of a hypnotized person because they are expected to ii. Hypnosis is a social phenomenon iii. Hypnotic suggestibility 1. ability to be hypnotized 2. higher in people who: a. have rich fantasy lives b. can focus intensely on a single task for a long time c. follow directions well d. State Theory i. Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness e. Dissociation Theory i. Ernest Hilgard ii. Hypnosis causes a voluntary split in consciousness 1. one level responds to the suggestions of the hypnotist 2. the other level retains awareness of reality iii. Ice water bath experiment 1. subjects felt pain but reported none 2. demonstrates the presence of a hidden observer a. a level of our consciousness that monitors what is happening while another level obeys the hypnotist 6. Drugs a. Psychoactive Drugs i. Chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain ii. Induce an altered state of consciousness iii. The effects are due both to expectations and physiological processes iv. Blood-brain barrier 1. thick walls surrounding the brain’s blood vessels 2. molecules of psychoactive drugs are small enough to pass through it v. Agonists 1. mimic neurotransmitters vi. Antagonists 1. prevent neurotransmitters from entering receptor sites, but don’t mimic their functions vii. Tolerance 1. caused by a physiological change 2. more of the same drug is needed for the same effect 3. cause withdrawal symptoms b. Stimulants i. Speed up body processes 1. autonomic nervous system ii. Produce a sense of euphoria iii. Caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, nicotine iv. Disturb sleep, reduce appetite, increase anxiety, cause heart problems c. Depressants i. Slow down body systems ii. Alcohol, barbiturates, anxiolytics (tranquilizers, antianxiety drugs) iii. Cause euphoria iv. Alcohol 1. slows reactions/judgment 2. affects motor coordination d. Hallucinations (Psychedelics) i. Cause changes in perception of reality 1. sensory hallucinations 2. loss of identity 3. vivid fantasies ii. Unpredictable effects iii. LSD, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, marijuana iv. Reverse tolerance 1. second dose may be less than first but cause greater effects 2. the drug lingers in the body for weeks e. Opiates i. Morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine ii. Similar in chemical structure to opium 1. a drug derived from the poppy plant iii. Act as agonists for endorphins 1. pain killers 2. mood elevators iv. Cause drowsiness and euphoria v. Very physically addictive 1. rapidly change brain chemistry and create tolerance/withdrawal Learning (Unit 6) 1. Overview a. Learning i. A long lasting change in behavior resulting from experience 2. Classical Conditioning a. Ivan Pavlov i. Russian Physiologist ii. Found that dogs learn to salivate to simply the sounds that they regularly hear before being fed iii. Developed classical conditioning: 1. neutral stimuli associated with stimuli such as food will produce similar responses as the old stimuli b. Classical Conditioning Process i. Unconditioned stimulus (US or UCS) 1. the original stimulus that elicits a response 2. elicits a natural, reflexive response c. d. e. f. g. h. 3. produces the unconditioned response (UR or UCR) 4. If continually paired with stimulus, they will be associated ii. Conditioned stimulus (CS) 1. a neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus 2. elicit a conditioned response (CR) iii. Acquisition 1. learning has occurred once the animals respond to the CS without the US 2. repeated pairings of CS and US yield a stronger CR 3. most effective conditioning: a. present US first b. introduce US while CS is still evident iv. Ineffective learning methods 1. trace conditioning a. presentation of CS b. short break c. presentation of US 2. simultaneous conditioning a. CS and US presented at same time 3. backward conditioning a. presentation of US b. presentation of CS Extinction i. The CS no longer elicits the CR ii. Achieved by presenting the CS without the US repeatedly Spontaneous Recovery i. After extinction, the CR briefly reappears upon presentation of the CS sometimes Generalization i. The tendency to respond to stimuli that is similar in some way to the CS 1. subjects can be trained to discriminate John Watson and Rosalie Rayner i. Conditioned Albert (a little boy) to fear a white rat 1. paired it with a loud noise → he cries 2. Albert generalized to other fluffy white things ii. Illustrates aversive conditioning Higher-Order Conditioning i. Second order conditioning ii. The CS acts as a US in order to condition a response to a new stimulus Biology i. We are biologically prepared to make certain connections more easily than others 1. learned taste aversions a. pairing nausea with a new food b. helpful for the survival of the species ii. Salient stimuli create a more powerful CR iii. Garcia and Koelling’s Experiment 1. illustrated that rats more easily make some connections than others a. noise with shock b. nausea with sweet water c. adaptive 3. Operant Conditioning a. Definition i. Learning based on the association of consequences with one’s behavior b. Edward Thorndike i. Experiment 1. locked a cat in a puzzle cage 2. cat had to get out to get food 3. time required decreased over trials 4. concluded that the cat learned new behavior without mental activity ii. Law of effect 1. if the consequences of a behavior are pleasant: a. the stimulus-response (S-R) connection will be strengthened b. the likelihood of the behavior will increase 2. vice-versa iii. Instrumental learning 1. the consequence was instrumental in shaping future behaviors 4. B.F. Skinner a. Coined the term operant conditioning b. Skinner box i. has a way to deliver food to an animal and a lever to press or disk to peck in order to get the food ii. reinforcer- the food iii. reinforcement- the process of giving the food 1. anything that makes a behavior more likely to occur is a reinforcer iv. positive reinforcement 1. the addition of something pleasant v. negative reinforcement 1. the removal of something unpleasant vi. escape learning 1. allows one to terminate an aversive stimulus vii. avoidance learning 1. enables one to avoid the aversive stimulus all together c. Punishment i. Affecting behavior by using unpleasant consequences ii. Positive punishment 1. the addition of something unpleasant iii. Negative punishment 1. “omission training” 2. the removal of something pleasant d. Punishment vs. Reinforcement i. Punishment is most effective if: 1. delivered immediately after unwanted behavior 2. harsh ii. Harsh punishment may result in anger or fear iii. Shaping 1. rewarding approximations of the desired behavior 2. increases the likelihood and speed of the subject stumbling upon the desired behavior for the first time iv. Chaining 1. teaching subjects to perform a number of responses successively in order to get a reward 2. example a. a rat named Barnabus who learned to run through a veritable obstacle course to get food v. Discriminative stimulus 1. in discrimination, the special conditions under which the subject learns to perform the desired behavior vi. Primary reinforcers 1. are rewarding in and of themselves 2. food, water, rest vii. Secondary reinforcers 1. things we have learned to value 2. praise, the chance to play a video game viii. Money 1. a generalized reinforcer because it can be traded for almost anything ix. Token economy 1. a practical application of generalized reinforcers 2. used in prisons, mental institutions, schools 3. every time people perform a desired behavior, they are given a token a. can be traded for any one of a variety of reinforcers x. Premack principle 1. the reinforcing properties of something depend on the situation 2. whichever of two activities is preferred can be used to reinforce the other activity e. Reinforcement Schedules i. Continuous reinforcement 1. rewarding the behavior each time 2. best when first teaching a new behavior a. once behavior is learned, partial reinforcement schedules yield higher response rates ii. Partial-reinforcement effect 1. behaviors will be more resistant to extinction if the animal has not been reinforced continuously iii. Ways they differ 1. what determines when reinforcement is delivered a. number of responses made- ratio schedule b. the passage of time- interval schedule 2. the pattern of reinforcement a. constant- fixed schedule b. changing- variable schedule iv. Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule 1. provides reinforcement after a set number of responses 2. FR-5 schedule a. subject will be rewarded after the fifth response v. Variable-ratio (VR) schedule 1. provides reinforcement based on a varying number of responses 2. VR-5 schedule a. average number of responses required to get a reward is five vi. Fixed-interval (FI) schedule 1. requires that a set amount of time elapse before a response results in a reward 2. FI-3 minute schedule a. rewards the first response that occurs after three minutes vii. Variable-interval (VI) schedule 1. varies the amount of time required to elapse before a response will result in reinforcement 2. VI-3 minute schedule a. subject will be rewarded for the first response made after an average of three minutes viii. Variable schedules are more resistant to extinction than fixed schedules f. Biology i. Instinctive drift 1. the tendency for animals to forgo rewards to pursue their typical patterns of behavior ii. Animals won’t perform certain behaviors that go against their natural inclinations 5. Cognitive Learning a. The Contingency Model of Classical Conditioning i. The contiguity model 1. the Pavlovian model of classical conditioning 2. the more times two things are paired, the greater the learning that will occur 3. contiguity (togetherness) a. determines the strength of the response ii. Contingency model 1. Robert Rescorla 2. a revised version of the Pavlovian model a. takes into account more complex circumstances 3. rests upon a cognitive view of classical conditioning b. Observational Learning (Modeling) i. Albert Bandura 1. studying modeling helped him formulate social-learning theory ii. Species-specific 1. it only occurs between members of the same species iii. Basic components: 1. observation 2. imitation 3. a mental representation of the observed behavior must exist to enable imitation iv. Bobo doll experiment 1. children exposed to adults who modeled aggressive behavior against Bobo doll 2. children left alone with a bobo doll 3. they exhibited almost identical aggressive behavior 4. Bandura and Ross 1963 5. showed that children learn violent behavior through observation c. Latent Learning i. Becomes obvious only once a reinforcement is given for demonstrating it ii. Edward Tolman’s experiment 1. three groups of rats: a. always got a reward for completing the maze b. never got a reward c. not rewarded during the first half of trials, rewarded in second half 2. group 3 a. during the first half their performance was very similar to the group that never got a reward b. performance improved dramatically and suddenly once they began to be rewarded for finishing the maze 3. conclusion a. the rats must have learned their way around the maze in the first half b. performance did not improve because it had no reason to c. dramatic improvement in second half resulted from latent learning d. Abstract Learning i. Understanding concepts in order to secure a reward ii. Studies show that pigeons can e. Insight Learning i. When one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem ii. Wolfgang Kohler’s Experiment 1. suspended a banana from the ceiling out of reach of a group of chimpanzees a. room had many boxes 2. chimps spent most time running around in frustration 3. suddenly, they piled up the boxes, climbed up, and grabbed the banana Cognition (Unit 7) 1. Overview 1. Memory 1. Any indication that learning has persisted over time 2. Three Box/ Information Processing Model of Memory 1. Sensory Memory 1. The first stop for external events 2. Contains all of the information processed by senses for less than a second 3. George Sperling’s Experiment 1. flashed a 3x3 grid for one twentieth of a second to participants 2. had to recall one of the rows immediately after 3. indicated which to remember with a tone 4. participants could recall any perfectly 5. demonstrated that the entire grid must be held in sensory memory for a split second 4. Iconic memory 1. a split second perfect photograph of a scene 5. Echoic memory 1. a brief (3-4 second) perfect memory for sounds 6. Not all information in sensory memory is encoded into short term memory 7. Selective attention determines which sensory messages get encoded 2. Short-Term/ Working Memory 1. Holds everything you are currently thinking 2. If we do nothing with short term memories, they usually fade in 10-30 seconds 3. Memories we are currently working with and aware of in our consciousness 4. Capacity limited to seven items 1. chunking a. can be used to expand this limit b. group items c. includes most mnemonic devices 5. To retain information: 1. rehearse (repeat) it 3. Long-Term Memory 1. Our permanent storage 2. Unlimited 3. Once information is there, it's usually there forever 4. Episodic memory 1. memories of specific events 2. stored in a sequential series 5. Semantic memory 1. general knowledge of the world 2. stored as facts, meanings, or categories 6. Procedural memory 1. memory of skills and how to perform them 2. stored sequentially but difficult to describe with words 7. Explicit memories 1. conscious memories of facts or events we tried to remember 8. Implicit memories 1. unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have 9. Eidetic (photographic) memory 1. very rare 2. seems to use very powerful and enduring visual images 3. Levels of Processing Model of Memory 1. Principles 1. Examines how deeply the memory was processed 1. deeply (elaboratively) processed a. more likely to remember 2. shallowly (maintenance) processed a. you will forget quickly 2. Memories are neither short nor long term 4. Retrieval 1. Definition 1. Getting information out of memory so we can use it 2. Types 1. Recognition 1. the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory 2. Recall 1. retrieving a memory with an external cue 3. Factors that Influence Retrieval 1. The order in which the information is presented 1. primacy effect a. predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list 2. recency effect a. demonstrated by our ability to recall the items at the end of a list 3. serial position effect a. recall of a list is affected by the order of items 2. Context 1. tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon a. temporary inability to remember information 2. semantic network theory a. our brain forms new memories by connecting their meaning and context with meanings already in memory 3. flashbulb memories a. powerful because the importance of the events caused us to encode the context surrounding the event 3. Emotional or situational context 1. mood-congruent memory a. the greater likelihood of recalling an item when our mood matches the mood we were in when the event happened 2. state-dependent memory a. recalling events encoded while in particular states of consciousness 5. Constructive Memory 1. “Recovered Memory” Phenomenon 1. Individuals claim to suddenly remember events they have “repressed” for years 2. Elizabeth Loftus 1. often they are constructed or false memories of events 2. Constructed (or Reconstructed) Memory 1. Can report false details of a real event 2. Can be a recollection of an event that never occurred 3. Leading questions can influence us to recall false details 4. Constructed memories feel accurate to the person recalling them 5. Need physical evidence for confirmation 6. Forgetting 1. Causes 1. Decay 1. we do not use a memory or connections to it for a long time 2. relearning effect a. relearning information takes less time and effort than learning it 2. Interference 1. other information in your memory competes with what you’re trying to recall 2. retroactive interference a. learning new information interferes with the recall of older information 3. proactive interference a. older information interferes with the recall of information learned more recently 7. How Memories are Physically Stored in the Brain 1. Anterograde Amnesia 1. Can’t encode new memories 2. Can recall events already in memory 3. Caused by damage to the hippocampus 4. Can learn new skills, but won’t remember learning them 1. suggests that procedural memory is located elsewhere in the brain 2. Long-Term Potentiation 1. Neurons can strengthen connections between each other 1. repeated firings strengthen connections, and the receiving neuron is more sensitive to messages from the sending neuron 2. may be related to connections we make in long term memory 8. Language 1. Elements of Language 1. Phonemes 1. the smallest units of sound used in a language 2. English has about 44 2. Morphemes 1. the smallest unit of meaningful sound 2. can be words or parts of words 3. Language consists of phonemes that make up morphemes that make up words 4. Syntax 1. the order in which words are spoken or written 2. Language Acquisition 1. Independent of which language, all babies progress through the same basic stages 2. Stages 1. babbling a. occurs around six months of age b. represents experimentation with phonemes c. babies in this stage can produce any phoneme in any language 2. holophrastic stage a. babies speak in single words (holophrases) 3. telegraphic speech a. toddlers will combine the words they can say into simple commands b. meaning is clear, but the syntax is absent c. children begin to learn grammar and syntax rules, often misapplying them (ex: overgeneralization) 3. Controversy: how we acquire language 1. behaviorists a. language, like all behaviors, is learned through operant conditioning and shaping b. when kids use language correctly, they are rewarded with a smile/encouragement 2. Noam Chomsky a. theorized that humans are born with language acquisition devices (ability to learn language rapidly as children) b. critical period for learning language may exist c. nativist theory of language acquisition 3. modern psychologists agree with both 3. Language and Cognition 1. Linguistic relativity hypothesis 1. psychologist Benjamin Whorf 2. the language we use might control, and in some ways limit, our thinking 9. Thinking and Creativity 1. Describing Thought 1. Concepts 1. the cognitive rules we apply to stimuli from our environment 2. allow us to categorize and think about the objects, people, and ideas we encounter 3. may be based on prototypes 2. Prototype 1. what we think is the most typical example of a particular concept 3. Images 1. the mental pictures we create in our minds of the outside world 2. can involve any sense 2. Problem Solving 1. Algorithms 1. a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula or other fool proof method 2. ex: try every possible solution 2. Heuristics 1. rules of thumb 2. a rule that is generally true that we can use to make a judgment in a situation 3. availability heuristic a. judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially b. may lead to incorrect conclusions due to variability in personal experience 4. representativeness heuristic a. judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are prototypes the person holds in his mind 3. Problems in judgments 1. overconfidence a. the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our judgments 2. belief bias a. we make illogical conclusions in order to confirm our preexisting beliefs 3. belief perseverance a. our tendency to maintain a belief even after the evidence we used to form it has been contradicted 4. Impediments to problem solving 1. rigidity (mental set) a. the tendency to fall into established thought patterns b. functional fixedness- the inability to see a new use for an object 2. not breaking the problem into parts 3. confirmation bias a. the tendency to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts them 4. framing a. the way the problem is presented b. can drastically change the way we view a problem 3. Creativity 1. Criteria generally involves originality and appropriateness 2. Convergent thinking 1. thinking pointed toward one solution 3. Divergent thinking 1. thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question 2. associated with creativity 4. Usually involves: 1. thinking of new ways to use what we are all familiar with 2. new ways to express emotions or ideas we share