Chapter 7: Emerging and Early Adulthood

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o Coverage: • Emerging and Early Adulthood • Emerging Adulthood Defined • Cultural Variations • When Does Adulthood Begin? • Young Adults Living Arrangements • The Physiological Peak • Obesity • A Healthy, But Risky Time • Gender • Sexuality • Beyond Formal Operational Thought: Postformal Thought • Education • Career Development and Employment • Sexism • Temperament and Personality in Adulthood • Attachment in Young Adulthood • Relationships with Parents and Siblings • Erikson: Intimacy vs. Isolation • Factors influencing Attraction • Friendships • Love • Adult Lifestyles • Intimate Partner Abuse • Parenthood Emerging and Early Adulthood Age Periods: • Historically, early adulthood was from 18 to 40-45 years (end of adolescence to start of middle adulthood). • Recently, developmental experts have divided this period into two stages: o Emerging adulthood (18-25 years) o Early adulthood (25-40/45 years). Characteristics: • Emerging adulthood and early adulthood differ in physical, cognitive, and social development, but both are: o A time of peak physical capabilities. o More mature cognitive development. o Becoming financially independent. Developing intimate relationships. Emerging Adulthood Defined Age Range: • Emerging adulthood is typically between ages 18-25, though some consider it up to 29 (Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood, 2016). Developmental Stage: • It's a period where people have outgrown adolescence but haven't fully taken on adult responsibilities. • Key features of emerging adulthood include: o A time for exploring life's possibilities—career, relationships, and personal growth. o A stage of independence and uncertainty about the future. Five Characteristics of Emerging Adulthood: • Identity Exploration: o People focus on figuring out their career choices and ideas about relationships. o Identity development happens more during emerging adulthood than adolescence. • Instability: o Lots of changes in jobs, relationships, and living situations. o These changes lead to uncertainty as people explore different paths. • Self-Focus: o It's a time to focus on personal goals, not selfishness. o Emerging adults are still considerate of others (especially their parents), but they now have more freedom and fewer obligations. • Feeling In-Between: o Many 18-25-year-olds feel they're neither fully adults nor fully adolescents. o They're independent in some ways (e.g., not living at home) but still dependent in others (e.g., financially or emotionally). • Age of Possibilities: o Emerging adulthood is often optimistic—there is belief that things will improve or go according to plan. o It's a time to transform one's life, even after difficult experiences or growing up in tough circumstances. Socioeconomic Class and Emerging Adulthood: 1|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • • • Arnett's theory was initially seen as focused on middle-class, college-attending young adults in the U.S. A study showed: o Lower-income emerging adults faced more emotional struggles (e.g., depression). o Financial challenges made it harder for them to access education. Arnett concluded that emerging adulthood happens universally, but social and cultural contexts are important. This stage is about exploration, uncertainty, and growing independence while people start to shape their futures. Cultural Variations Emerging Adulthood Theory Context: • The theory of emerging adulthood, developed by Arnett (2004, 2016), was initially based on research in the U.S. involving various ethnic groups, social classes, and regions. • Its application internationally depends on the region, with notable differences between economically developed countries (OECD) and developing countries. OECD Countries vs. Developing Countries: • OECD countries (e.g., U.S., Canada, Western Europe, Japan, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand) make up 18% of the global population but are more affluent and have better educational and health outcomes. • Developing countries have lower incomes, educational levels, and face higher rates of illness and early death. Europe’s Experience of Emerging Adulthood: • Europe has longer and more leisurely emerging adulthood, with median ages for marriage and parenthood around 30. • European countries offer generous social welfare benefits, including free tertiary education, job support, and unemployment benefits. • Young Europeans use these advantages to delay adulthood while focusing on selfdevelopment, leisure, and travel. Asian Emerging Adults (Japan, South Korea): • Similar to Europe, Asian emerging adults in developed countries like Japan and South Korea marry and become parents around age 30. • They benefit from strong social welfare systems (e.g., free university education, unemployment benefits) like their European counterparts. • However, their experience is influenced by a cultural legacy of collectivism, emphasizing family obligations, which contrasts with Europe’s individualism. Cultural Differences: • European cultures emphasize individualism, allowing more freedom for self-development, leisure, and identity exploration during emerging adulthood. • Asian cultures, though increasingly individualistic due to globalization, still prioritize family obligations and collectivism. • In Asia, financial independence is less important than the ability to financially support parents, shaping the transition to adulthood. • Asian emerging adults’ identity exploration may be more constrained by family expectations, influencing career choices, educational paths, and living arrangements. Differences in Adulthood Criteria: • U.S. and Europe: Financial independence is a top marker of adulthood. • Asia: Supporting parents financially is considered a more important criterion for becoming an adult. When Does Adulthood Begins? Historical Perspective: • In the past, adulthood was clearly marked by rites of passage, such as marriage and parenthood. • These role transitions were once considered significant markers of adulthood. Modern Changes: • Economic and social shifts have caused delays in marriage and parenthood. • Higher education and other factors now extend the period before adulthood begins. • As a result, financial independence and accepting responsibility for oneself are now considered the most important markers of adulthood in Western cultures. Cultural Differences in Adulthood: • In Western cultures, financial independence and taking responsibility are key markers. • These markers apply across different ethnic groups within Western societies. Perceptions Among College Students (Rankin & Kenyon, 2008): • Some college students still view rites of passage (marriage, parenthood) as important markers of adulthood. • Students who view these role transitions as more important tend to have specific characteristics: o Belong to a fraternity/sorority o Are traditionally aged (18-25) o Belong to an ethnic minority 2|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o Are in a traditional marital status (e.g., not cohabitating) o Are part of a religious organization • These students are likely to hold collectivist or traditional values that emphasize role transitions. Differences Based on Age and Relationship Status: • Older students and those who are cohabitating place less importance on traditional role transitions (like marriage or parenthood) as markers of adulthood. Young Adults' Living Arrangements Changing Trends in Living Arrangements (Fry, 2016): • In 2014, for the first time in over 130 years, more U.S. adults aged 18 to 34 were living with their parents than with a spouse or partner in their own household. • Historically, young adults (18-34) lived with a romantic partner more often than with their parents. However, by 2014, this trend had shifted: o 31.6% of young adults lived with a spouse or partner. o 32.1% lived with their parents. • Other living arrangements included: o 14% living alone, as a single parent, or with roommates. o 22% living with other family members, non-relatives, or in group quarters (e.g., college dorms). Ethnic and Gender Differences: • Ethnic Groups: o 36% of Black and Hispanic early adults lived at home. o 30% of White young adults lived at home. • Gender Differences: o 35% of young men lived with their parents, while 28% lived with a spouse or partner. o 29% of young women lived with their parents, while 35% lived with a spouse or partner. o 16% of young women were heading their own households (often as single parents), compared to 13% of young men. o More young men (25%) lived with other family members, non-relatives, or in group quarters compared to young women (19%). Factors Contributing to These Changes: • Delayed Marriage: Young adults are postponing or choosing not to marry or cohabit. • • • Economic Factors: o Unemployment and lower wages have especially affected young men, leading to higher rates of living with parents. o Since 1970, wages for young men (adjusted for inflation) have been falling, correlating with the rise in young men living with their parents. The Recession (2007-present): o The economic downturn and recovery increased college enrollments, which in turn led to more young adults living with their parents. Higher Education: o Once young adults graduate with a college degree, they are more likely to establish their own households. The Physiological Peak Early Adulthood (Mid-Twenties to MidForties): • Physical Maturation Complete: By early adulthood, physical growth is mostly complete, though height and weight may still increase slightly. • Peak of Physiological Development: o Muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning are at their best. o Reproductive system, motor skills, strength, and lung capacity are all optimal during this period. o Professional athletes are often at their peak performance during these years. o Many women also have children in these years. Onset of Aging (Around Age 30): • Aging begins subtly during early adulthood, with gradual changes in the body: o Vision Changes: The lens of the eye starts to stiffen and thicken, affecting the ability to focus on close objects. o Hearing: Sensitivity to sound decreases, and this decline happens more rapidly in men than women. o Hair: Hair may begin to thin and turn gray, often starting around age 35, though it can vary. o Skin: Skin becomes drier, and wrinkles start to appear by the end of early adulthood. o Physical Response: Decline in response time and the ability to recover quickly after physical exertion. o Immune System: The immune system becomes less efficient at fighting illness. 3|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o Reproductive Capacity: Reproductive ability starts to decline. Obesity o o o Obesity Statistics: • As of 2016, 39.8% of U.S. adults were classified as obese (BMI ≥ 30.0), with 70.7% being overweight (BMI 25.0–29.9) in 2012. • The average adult in their 20s gains 1 to 2 pounds per year into middle adulthood: o Average man in his 20s weighs around 185 lbs and by his 30s, approximately 200 lbs. o Average woman in her 20s weighs 162 lbs and by her 30s, approximately 170 lbs. • Obesity rates are rising globally, with 266 million obese men and 375 million obese women worldwide. The USA and China have the highest obesity rates. Obesity Measurement: • Body Mass Index (BMI) is used to classify overweight and obesity: o Overweight: BMI 25.0–29.9 o Obese: BMI ≥ 30.0 o Extreme Obesity: BMI ≥ 40.0 • Waist circumference is also used to measure obesity. Causes of Obesity: • Environmental Factors: o Culture, food marketing, education, and access to physical activity play significant roles. o Poor diet and lack of physical activity are primary contributors. • Genetic Factors: o There is no single obesity gene; multiple genes are involved, many influencing hunger and food intake. o "Energy-thrifty genes" from ancestral times helped humans survive food scarcity, but now, in an environment with constant food availability, they may contribute to obesity. Health Consequences of Obesity: • Obesity is linked to numerous serious health risks and conditions: o Increased mortality (all-causes of death) o High blood pressure (hypertension) o Dyslipidemia (high cholesterol or triglycerides) o Type 2 diabetes o Coronary heart disease o Stroke o Gallbladder disease o Osteoarthritis (joint pain) o Sleep apnea and breathing issues Increased risk of some cancers (e.g., breast, colon, kidney, liver) Low quality of life and mental health issues (e.g., depression, anxiety) Body pain and difficulty with physical activities A Healthy, But Risky Time Health Risks in Early Adulthood: • In early adulthood, doctor visits are less frequent, primarily due to injury and pregnancy. • The top causes of death in early adulthood: o Non-intentional injury (e.g., motor vehicle accidents) o Homicide o Suicide o Cancer and heart disease. • Young adult males have higher rates of violent death (homicide, suicide, accidents) than females. U.S. rates are higher than countries like Canada, Mexico, and Japan. • Males are 3x more likely to die in auto accidents than females. Alcohol Use and Abuse: • Alcohol consumption is a significant contributor to risky behavior: o 88% of adults aged 18+ reported drinking at some point. o 6.7% of adults engaged in heavy drinking (5+ drinks on the same occasion, 5+ days in the past month). o Alcohol-related deaths: Approx. 88,000 people die annually from alcohol-related causes. o Alcohol-impaired driving causes 31% of all driving fatalities (9,967 deaths in 2014). • Binge drinking (reaching 0.08 BAC) is common: 25% of adults (18+) reported binge drinking in the past month. • Consequences of college alcohol consumption: o 1,825 college students (ages 18-24) die annually from alcohol-related accidents. o 696,000 students are assaulted by other students who have been drinking. o 1 in 5 students meet criteria for Alcohol Use Disorder. o 97,000 students experience alcoholrelated sexual assault or date rape. • Alcohol’s role in sexual assault: Over 80% of sexual assaults on campuses involve alcohol. Factors Influencing College Students' Drinking: 4|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Factors such as alcohol availability, stress coping, and social pressures contribute to college drinking. • Freshman year is particularly vulnerable due to social pressures and changes in environment. • Drinking is higher in fraternities, sororities, and athletic programs, and lower for students living with family. Strategies to Curb College Drinking: • Interventions: Education, awareness programs, and health professional support. • Reducing alcohol availability on campus has been effective in decreasing consumption and negative outcomes. Non-Alcohol Substance Use: • Illicit drug use peaks between 19-22 years old and begins to decline afterward. • Opioid misuse is significant in early adulthood, especially prescription opioids. • In 2016, opioid misuse was reported by 3.6% of 12-17-year-olds and 7.2% of 18-25year-olds. • In 2014, 1,700+ deaths occurred from prescription drug overdoses in early adulthood. • Daily marijuana use has increased, particularly among college students (6% in 2014). • Cigarette smoking is lower among college students compared to non-college peers. Impact of Substance Use on Behavior: • Substance use impairs judgment, inhibitions, and mood, leading to risky behaviors like: o Reckless driving, violent altercations, and forced sexual encounters. o Increased risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) due to risky sexual behavior under the influence. o Teratogenic effects of drugs and alcohol on the developing fetus during pregnancy. Gender What is Gender? • Gender is a social construct related to cultural, social, and psychological meanings associated with masculinity and femininity. • Gender identity refers to a person’s sense of self as belonging to a particular gender. • Gender roles (societal expectations for males and females) vary across cultures, e.g., in the U.S., dresses are seen as feminine, but in many other cultures (Middle Eastern, Asian, African), they can be seen as masculine. Cultural Variations in Gender Expression: • The kilt worn by Scottish men is an example of masculinity in their culture, even though it’s a dress-like garment. • Traditional gender roles in U.S. culture associate masculine roles with strength, aggression, and dominance, and feminine roles with passivity, nurturing, and subordination. Challenging Gender Norms: • Many adults are questioning traditional gender labels and roles. • Modern research shows that gender is not binary (only male or female) but rather a spectrum that includes various identities like: o Cisgender (identifying with the gender assigned at birth) o Transgender (gender identity differs from assigned gender at birth) o Agender, genderfluid, genderqueer, gender nonconforming, bigender, pangender, and more. o Two-Spirit is a term used by some Indigenous North American cultures to describe gender-variant individuals. Gender Minority Discrimination: • Gender nonconforming individuals (those who do not follow traditional gender norms) face higher rates of harassment, bullying, and violence. • They also experience discrimination in housing, employment, healthcare, and education. • Transgender individuals of color, especially transgender women of color, face additional challenges due to structural racism and intersecting minority statuses. Gender Minority Status and Mental Health: • Transgender and gender nonconforming individuals often have higher levels of anxiety and depression compared to cisgender individuals. • This higher mental health burden is explained by the minority stress model: o External stressors: discrimination, harassment, and prejudice. o Internal stressors: negative thoughts and emotions due to one’s gender identity. • Mental health services sensitive to both gender and sexual minority statuses are important for better well-being. Gender Transition and Self-Expression: • Some transgender adults may choose to undergo medical interventions (hormonal therapy, surgery) to align their bodies with their gender identity. 5|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • Others may present as a different gender (e.g., by changing their clothes, hairstyle, and mannerisms) without physically transitioning. Cross-dressing (e.g., transvestites, drag kings, drag queens) is a form of selfexpression or entertainment, not necessarily tied to gender identity. Sexuality Definition of Sexuality: • Refers to sexual attraction, interest, and the ability to have erotic experiences. • Includes emotional, biological, physical, social, and spiritual aspects, such as thoughts, fantasies, desires, attitudes, behaviors, and relationships. Sexual Response Cycle (Kinsey Model): • Excitement Phase: Intrinsic motivation to pursue sex. • Plateau Phase: Increased heart rate and sexual excitement. • Orgasm: Release of sexual tension. • Resolution: Return to a non-aroused state. Brain and Sex: • The brain controls sexual behavior by processing nerve impulses and regulating hormone release. • The hypothalamus is crucial for sexual functioning and hormone regulation. Sexual Hormones: • Oxytocin: Released during orgasm and strengthens emotional bonds. • Testosterone: Influences sexual motivation in both men and women. • FSH/LH: Regulate reproduction (egg maturity, sperm production). Sexual Responsiveness: • Men: Peaks in late teens/early twenties, declines by late twenties/early thirties. • Women: Often increases in sexual responsiveness through 20s and 30s, peaking in late 30s or early 40s. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs): • Common STIs include chlamydia, herpes, HPV, gonorrhea, syphilis, and HIV. • Prevention: Safe-sex practices (condoms, dental dams, etc.) reduce risk, though some diseases may still be transmitted. Societal Views on Sexuality: • Views shaped by religion, philosophy, media, and peers. • Media plays a strong role in shaping sexual norms and gender roles. Cultural Differences in Sexuality: • Premarital sex and cohabitation norms vary globally. For instance, Western societies accept premarital sex, but in many Asian countries, premarital sex and cohabitation are less common. Sexual Orientation: • Refers to the emotional and sexual attraction to particular genders. • Types include heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, pansexuality, asexuality, and others. • Alfred Kinsey’s Continuum: Sexual orientation exists on a spectrum, rather than a strict binary of gay or straight. Development of Sexual Orientation: • Usually recognized during childhood/adolescence, but can be understood later in life. • Factors influencing sexual orientation are genetic, hormonal, and social. Genetics and Sexual Orientation: • Twin Studies: Identical twins show higher concordance for same-sex orientation than fraternal twins. • Fraternal Birth Order Effect: The likelihood of a male identifying as gay increases with each older brother. • Prenatal Hormonal Influence: Excessive or deficient prenatal androgen exposure may affect sexual orientation. Sexual Orientation Discrimination: • Heteronormativity: Society assumes heterosexuality as the norm. • Homophobia: Negative attitudes and behaviors toward non-heterosexual individuals. • LGBTQ+ Discrimination: Sexual minorities face stigma, harassment, and discrimination, often leading to higher rates of depression and suicide. Challenges for Marginalized Groups: • Research on LGBTQ+ individuals often focuses on white, middle-class populations, leaving gaps in understanding for racial minorities within these communities. • Intersectionality: Non-Caucasian LGBT individuals may face dual oppression, both in the LGBTQ+ community and within their own ethnic groups. Beyond Formla Operational Thought: Postformal Thought Postformal Thought: • Develops after formal operational thought (Piaget). • Involves more practical, realistic thinking. • Adults consider not only possibilities but also likelihoods and practicality. • Decision-making becomes more adaptive and based on experience. 6|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Adults are less influenced by others' opinions and more self-directed in their thinking. Dialectical Thought: • An advanced form of postformal thinking. • Involves recognizing both sides of an issue, acknowledging that few things are purely right or wrong. • Adults learn to see complexity and ambiguity in situations, unlike adolescents who often see things as either black or white. • Example: Parents, once seen as perfect or flawed by adolescents, become understood as having strengths and weaknesses by adults. Not Everyone Reaches Postformal Thinking: • Formal operational thought (thinking abstractly) may not apply to all situations or all adults. • It is influenced by education and life experiences. • Some adults never engage in abstract thinking, especially if they are not exposed to education that challenges them to think abstractly. • Even among those who do think abstractly, it may be easier in some subjects than others (e.g., psychology majors may think abstractly in psychology but struggle with abstract reasoning in physics). Notes: • Postformal thought is about being realistic, practical, and balancing opposing views. • Dialectical thought helps adults make more nuanced, balanced decisions. • Abstract thinking is influenced by education and experiences; it’s not universal to all adults. Education High School and College Attainment: • 84% of 18-24-year-olds and 88% of those 25+ have a high school diploma or equivalent. • 36% of 18-24-year-olds and 7% of 25-49year-olds attend college. • 59% of those 25+ have completed some college. • 32.5% of adults 25+ have a bachelor’s degree or higher (slightly more women than men). Slow Growth of College Attainment: • College attainment in the U.S. has grown more slowly compared to other countries. • High costs of education in the U.S. contribute to this slower growth. Student Loan Debt: • 65% of college seniors in 2017 graduated with student loan debt, averaging $28,650. • Debt varies across states: lowest in Utah ($18,850), highest in Connecticut ($38,500). • Students at for-profit colleges borrow more on average ($39,900) and are more likely to default (30%) compared to public college students (4%). State and Federal Actions on Debt: • Some states are increasing spending and grants to help students with college costs. • 15% of 2017 graduates' debt was owed to private lenders, which has higher interest rates and fewer repayment options. Graduate School Debt: • Graduate program debts are higher: o $42,335 for a master’s degree. o $95,715 for a doctoral degree. o $141,000 for a professional degree (e.g., medical or law school). Employment and Income Benefits of Higher Education: • 80% of college-educated adults are employed, compared to 70% with only a high school diploma and 60% with no high school diploma. • College graduates tend to earn more over their lifetime. • College education has benefits beyond finances: college graduates are more likely to volunteer, have greater life control, and are more engaged in the world. Other Benefits of College: • College students develop a distinct identity, become more socially competent, and are less dogmatic and ethnocentric than noncollege students. Is College Worth It? • Although college is a significant financial investment, the long-term benefits, both personal (higher income, better job prospects) and societal (greater civic engagement), make it worthwhile. • Individuals with advanced degrees generally earn more and face lower unemployment. Career Development and Employment Career Development Stages: • Stage 1 (Childhood): Career choices are often based on glamour or excitement, with little regard for suitability. • Stage 2 (Teens): Career choices start to include personal abilities and limitations. • Stage 3 (Older Teens/Early Adults): Career decisions become more objective, weighing job requirements, rewards, and personal values. Some may "fall-into" careers due to availability, family pressure, or financial benefits. • Stage 4 (Mid to Late 30s): Adults settle into their careers, with continuity, though some 7|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT may feel trapped in dead-end jobs with limited advancement. Changes in Career Patterns for Millennials: • Millennials are more likely to job-hop and return to school for retraining compared to previous generations. • Despite frequent job changes, Millennials tend to seek jobs in fields that align with their interests. • Millennials in the Workforce: As of 2016, Millennials became the largest generation in the U.S. labor force. • Workplace Expectations: Millennials seek purpose beyond just a paycheck. However, only 29% of Millennials feel engaged at work, leading to high job turnover and a $30.5 billion cost to businesses annually. NEETs (Not in Education, Employment, or Training): • Many young adults have been affected by economic downturns, leading to high rates of NEETs (those neither working nor in education/training). • In the U.S. (2017): Over 13% of 15-29-yearolds were NEETs, with higher rates among women and those with low education. • Persistent high NEET rates, especially in regions hit by recessions, can lead to social unrest. Impact of Gender on Career and Employment: • Gender Roles in Careers: Women often work in service sectors (e.g., education, nursing), while men dominate technical and scientific fields. • Despite increased female participation in professions like medicine and law, women still tend to occupy lower-status roles with less pay and job security. • Gender Pay Gap: Women are more likely to work in lower-paying roles within their professions (e.g., family practice doctor vs. surgeon, or junior law firm partner vs. senior partner). Sexism What is Sexism? • Sexism refers to prejudice or discrimination based on a person’s sex or gender. • It often affects women more than men and is linked to stereotypes and gender roles. • Extreme sexism can lead to sexual harassment, rape, and other forms of sexual violence. Sexism in Society: • Employment & Education: Women are less likely to be hired or promoted in maledominated fields (e.g., engineering, aviation). • Gender Expectations: Society expects women to be friendly, passive, and nurturing. Women who don’t conform may be labeled as aggressive, while men exhibiting similar behaviors might be praised for strength. Occupational Sexism: • Wage Discrimination: Despite women holding 49.3% of jobs, they earn 78 cents for every $1 men make (Council of Economic Advisors, 2015). • 2019 Women’s World Cup Example: U.S. women’s soccer team earned less despite generating more revenue than the men’s team. Women earned $4 million (vs. $38 million for men’s World Cup), sparking lawsuits for equal pay. Factors Contributing to the Wage Gap: • Education Doesn’t Explain the Gap: Women earn less than men even at the same educational level. • Occupational Segregation: Women are more likely to work in lower-paying occupations (e.g., nursing, childcare). • Sticky Floors: Women, especially minorities, are less likely to be promoted from low-wage jobs. • Negotiation & Career Interruptions: Men are more likely to negotiate salaries, while women face interruptions due to family or relocation. Barriers to Power for Women: • Glass Ceiling: Invisible barriers that prevent women and minorities from advancing to top positions, regardless of qualifications. • Glass Cliff: Women and minorities often face higher risks when placed in leadership positions during crises (e.g., high-risk cases for female lawyers). • Executive Roles: Women hold only 4.5% of CEO positions globally, and often face discrimination from current male executives. Global Gender Parity: • The Global Gender Gap Report (2017): Analyzes gender equality in economic participation, education, health, and political empowerment. • Global Findings: o 68% global gender parity overall. o 96% parity in health, 95% parity in education, but 58% parity in economic participation and only 23% parity in political empowerment. o Top countries: Iceland (88%), Norway (83%), Finland (82%). o U.S. ranked 49th with 72% parity. o Projected Timeline for Global Gender Parity: 100 years if current trends continue. 8|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • Gender Equality Improvements: Closing the gender wage and occupational gaps can lead to significant economic gains for countries. Need for Change: Reducing barriers like the glass ceiling and ensuring equal pay and opportunities can help achieve greater gender equality. Temperament and Personality in Adulthood What is Temperament? • Temperament refers to the innate characteristics of an infant, such as mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity, which become noticeable soon after birth. • Temperament can remain stable throughout life, though it can be influenced by environmental factors like parenting, socioeconomic status, or life events. • Research Findings: o Easy-tempered children tend to grow into well-adjusted adults. o Difficult-tempered children may struggle with adjustment in adulthood. o Inhibited children (shy, reactive to unfamiliarity) may develop social anxiety as adults (linked to amygdala activity). • Temperament is genetically driven but can be influenced by environmental factors such as supportive parenting or a stable home. What is Personality? • Personality refers to a person’s characteristic ways of thinking, feeling, behaving, and relating to others. • Personality is a combination of temperament and environmental/cultural influences, and it becomes more evident in adulthood. • Personality Traits include values, preferences, and daily behaviors that shape how we view ourselves and interact with others. Five-Factor Model (Big Five Personality Traits): • The Five-Factor Model categorizes personality traits into five broad domains (OCEAN): o Openness to Experience: Creativity, curiosity, and appreciation for art and adventure. o Conscientiousness: Self-discipline, achievement-oriented, preference for planned behavior. o Extraversion: Sociability, seeking stimulation, and enjoying positive emotions. o Agreeableness: Compassion, cooperation, and a desire for social harmony. o Neuroticism: Tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anxiety and depression. Does Personality Change in Adulthood? • Yes, personality can change over time, though some traits remain stable for many people. • Research findings: o Neuroticism and openness tend to decrease with age. o Conscientiousness tends to increase with age. • Individual differences in personality changes can result from life events, such as illness or divorce. Personality and Life Outcomes: • Personality traits, especially conscientiousness, predict important life outcomes such as: o Job success, health, and longevity. o Lower rates of blood pressure, diabetes, stroke, and joint problems. o More likely to engage in healthy behaviors and avoid stress. • High conscientiousness is linked to better cognitive skills and stability in career, friendships, and marriage. Notes: • Temperament is stable over time, though the environment can influence change. • Personality develops from early temperament and external influences, becoming clearer in adulthood. • The Five-Factor Model provides a framework for understanding personality traits. • Conscientiousness plays a significant role in life satisfaction, health, and overall well-being. Attachment in Young Adulthood Adult Attachment Styles (based on Hazan & Shaver, 1987): • Secure: Comfortable getting close to others, trusting and depending on partners, without excessive worry about being abandoned. • Avoidant: Uncomfortable with closeness, difficulty trusting and depending on others, avoids intimacy. • Anxious/Ambivalent: Worries that partner doesn’t love them enough, desires high levels of closeness, and fears abandonment. Bartholomew's Model (1990): Attachment in adults is best described along two dimensions: • Attachment-related Anxiety: Worry about partner’s love and fear of rejection/abandonment. 9|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Attachment-related Avoidance: Difficulty trusting and opening up to others, fear of dependency. • Four attachment styles based on these dimensions: o Secure: Low anxiety and avoidance, comfortable with trust and intimacy. o Dismissing: Low anxiety, high avoidance, dismiss the importance of relationships. o Preoccupied: High anxiety, low avoidance, prone to jealousy and insecurity. o Fearful-Avoidant: High anxiety and high avoidance, desire closeness but fear emotional intimacy. Research Findings on Attachment in Adulthood: • Insecure attachments (avoidant and anxious) correlate with lower relationship satisfaction and more conflict. • Avoidant individuals show less support to their partners. • Attachment-related anxiety is higher in young adults than in older adults. • Secure attachments in youth help with the transition to adulthood and decrease the likelihood of depression. Attachment Styles and Relationships: • Secure individuals tend to attract other secure individuals. • Some studies suggest that secure people create security in their partners over time, while others show that people with similar attachment styles tend to pair up. • Longitudinal studies suggest that partners can influence each other’s attachment styles over time (e.g., change in one partner’s security may influence the other partner). Do Early Experiences Affect Adult Attachment?: • Retrospective studies suggest that adults with secure attachments often recall positive, supportive childhood experiences. • Longitudinal studies show that early attachment (e.g., maternal sensitivity) can predict adult attachment and relationship quality. • Attachment is probabilistic, not deterministic: Early experiences influence but don’t dictate adult attachment. Corrective experiences (e.g., relationships with friends, mentors, or other family members) can help develop secure attachments later in life. Notes: • Attachment styles in adulthood influence relationship satisfaction, trust, and emotional support. • • Early experiences provide a foundation for attachment, but individuals can change their attachment style through corrective experiences. Security in relationships is not fixed, and attachment can evolve with positive experiences. Relationships with Parents and Siblings Parent-Child Relationship Transition: • In early adulthood, the relationship between parents and young adults shifts towards a more adult-to-adult dynamic. • Parents may struggle to accept their child’s adult status, which can affect the young adult’s identity development. • Emerging adulthood (when young adults live at home) can make this transition harder, as living with parents can hinder independence and growth. • Leaving home often promotes psychological growth and independence for young adults. Sibling Relationships in Adulthood: • Sibling bonds are some of the longest-lasting relationships but often change in adulthood. • As adults, siblings have more control over whether they maintain close relationships, and interactions tend to decrease due to new priorities like peers, romantic relationships, and children. • Early adulthood involves reappraising sibling relationships, moving beyond childhood conflicts toward more equal, adult-to-adult relationships. • Siblings who were close in childhood generally remain close in adulthood. It is rare for adult siblings to develop closeness for the first time. • Majority of adult sibling relationships are close, even if the frequency of interactions decreases over time. Notes: • Parent-child relationships evolve as young adults gain independence, and parents may need time to adjust. • Sibling relationships tend to remain close if they were close in childhood, but adult siblings often have to reappraise their bond. • Independence, life changes, and new relationships influence the frequency and nature of sibling interactions during early adulthood. Erikson's Stage: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Stage 6) 10 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • This stage emphasizes the challenge of forming intimate relationships or facing the risk of social isolation. Identity and Intimacy: • Identity: Establishing a strong sense of identity is crucial before forming deep, intimate relationships. • Struggling with identity can make forming close, intimate connections more difficult. • Identity development is a lifelong process, with periods of both crisis and stability. Intimacy: • Once identity is established, the individual is better able to pursue intimate relationships, including: o Friendships: Casual, supportive connections. o Close, long-term relationships: Such as romantic partnerships or marriages. • Erikson suggests that achieving intimacy requires a solid sense of self, and failure to establish intimacy may lead to social isolation. Factors Influencing Attraction Similarity: • We are attracted to others who share similar values, beliefs, and interests. • Why it matters: Similarity makes relationships more convenient (shared activities) and provides validation for our values and choices. This validation is called consensual validation, which strengthens attraction. Self-Disclosure: • Liking is enhanced when partners openly share personal thoughts and feelings. • Balanced Disclosure: Self-disclosure should be reciprocal. Both people should feel comfortable sharing, and if one person opens up without the same level of openness from the other, the relationship may not last. • Why it matters: Open communication creates deeper connection and trust in relationships. Proximity: • We are more likely to form relationships with people who are physically near us. • Mere Exposure Effect: The more we are exposed to someone, the more we tend to like them. This effect applies to people and other stimuli (like faces or objects). • Why it matters: Proximity and frequent exposure make people seem more familiar, safe, and less threatening, increasing attraction. Evolutionary Basis of Attraction: • We tend to prefer familiar people because they seem safer and less threatening. • Ingroup/Outgroup: Familiar individuals may be seen as part of our "ingroup," which increases liking. Friendships Intimacy Needs: • In early adulthood (twenties), friendships often fulfill intimacy needs, especially as many young adults delay long-term commitments like marriage or cohabitation. Differences in Friendships Between Men and Women: • Men's Friendships: o Focus more on shared activities, providing solutions, or discussing opinions and facts. o Emotional sharing is less common; instead, activities of mutual interest dominate. • Women's Friendships: o Tend to focus on sharing emotions, weaknesses, and discussing personal problems. o Women are more likely to express their feelings, frustrations, and joys. Challenges in Mixed-Gender Friendships: • Men and women may have different expectations for friendship dynamics. • Example: A woman might want to vent about a problem, while a man might try to solve it, which can lead to misunderstandings. • Mixed-gender friendships often face tension due to the unspoken question of whether the relationship will evolve into a romantic one. Impact on Friendships: • Friendships between men and women can become strained due to differing approaches. • Friendships may diminish when someone enters a romantic relationship, and single friends may be replaced by couple friends. Love Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love • Three Components of Love: o o Passion: Intense physical attraction. Intimacy: Psychological closeness, ability to share personal feelings. o Commitment: Decision to stay together. Types of Love Based on These Components: • Liking: o Components: Intimacy (closeness), no passion or commitment. o Description: Partners are friends who share personal thoughts but aren't romantically involved. 11 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • • • • • • Infatuation: o Components: Passion only (intense physical attraction). o Description: A brief, intense attraction, often described as "love at first sight." Fatuous Love: o Components: Passion and commitment (without intimacy). o Description: Strong physical attraction with premature commitment, often without true emotional connection. Empty Love: o Components: Commitment only (without intimacy or passion). o Description: Partners remain together for practical reasons (e.g., children, financial needs) but lack emotional or physical closeness. Romantic Love: o Components: Intimacy and passion (without commitment). o Description: Strong emotional closeness and physical attraction but no long-term commitment. Companionate Love: o Components: Intimacy and commitment (without passion). o Description: Partners have a deep emotional bond and commitment but may no longer feel physical attraction. Consummate Love: o Components: Passion, intimacy, and commitment. o Description: The "ideal" love, where the relationship includes physical attraction, emotional closeness, and a lasting commitment. Love can exist in many forms based on varying combinations of passion, intimacy, and commitment. Not all relationships include all three components, and the nature of the relationship can evolve over time. Adult Lifestyles Singlehood Trends: • Being single is common in early adulthood, especially for those in their 20s. • In 1960, only 1 in 10 adults aged 25+ had never married, but by 2012, it increased to 1 in 5. • Many young adults are marrying later, cohabiting, and raising children outside of marriage. • More young adults prioritize education and career development over marriage. • A Pew Research survey found that slightly more adults believe society is fine with priorities other than marriage and children (50% vs. 46%). Reasons for Staying Single: • Top reasons young adults remain single: o Haven't met the right person (30%) o Lack of financial stability (27%) o Not ready to settle down (22%) o Too young to marry (22%) Hooking Up: • Casual sexual encounters, often without commitment, are common in emerging adulthood. • 70% of sexually active 12-21 year-olds have had uncommitted sex in the past year. • Traditional dating has shifted to more casual “hookups.” • Research shows both males and females engage in hookups for physical, emotional gratification, or to initiate a relationship, but males tend to be more permissive about casual sex. • Casual sex can lead to emotional consequences like regret, guilt, and lowered self-esteem, especially for women. Friends with Benefits (FWB): • FWBs are different from casual hookups— they involve friends engaging in sex without commitment. • Concerns include one partner becoming more romantically invested than the other. • 60% of college students reported having an FWB relationship. Gender Differences in Hooking Up: • Males are more permissive about casual sex compared to females, likely due to societal gender roles. • Females often experience more negative emotional reactions (guilt, regret) after hooking up. Emotional Consequences of Hooking Up: • Higher use of substances (alcohol, drugs) linked to hooking up. • Regret, depression, guilt, and lowered selfesteem are common among those who engage in casual sex. • Both males and females desire more traditional, committed relationships despite engaging in casual sex. Online Dating: • Growth in Online Dating: Nearly 50 million Americans have tried online dating, with significant increases in use by younger adults. • Differences in Couples Who Met Online vs. Offline: o Online couples tend to have different education levels, political views, and 12 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT come from different racial/ethnic backgrounds. o Online dating offers greater opportunity to meet people outside one's immediate social circle. • Communication in Online Dating: o Online dating allows for deeper emotional connections due to less pressure from physical appearance and face-to-face cues. o Online communication may foster intimacy more quickly because it’s easier to disclose personal details. Risks of Online Dating: • Catfishing: Deceptive activity where someone creates a fake online profile to scam others. This has led to legal actions in some states. • Gender Differences in Online Dating Preferences: o Men tend to focus more on physical attraction, while women value communication and kindness more. o Older users rate sexual attraction as less important than younger users. Cohabitation and Marriage Cohabitation Trends: • Cohabitation is increasingly common, especially for emerging adults, and in some cases, it has become more common than marriage. • For adults aged 25-34, cohabitation rates have risen, while marriage rates have declined. • Socioeconomic factors influence cohabitation: those who marry tend to have higher levels of education and earnings. Cohabitation Over Time: • The median length of cohabitation increased from 13 months in 1995 to 22 months in 2010. • 40% of cohabitations transition to marriage within 3 years, 32% continue cohabiting, and 27% dissolve. Reasons for Increase in Cohabitation: • Individualism and Secularism: Greater acceptance of cohabitation due to cultural shifts. • Economic and Social Changes: Gender equality, sexual freedom, and economic changes made marriage less of a necessity. • Educational Changes: Delayed marriage is partly due to increased focus on higher education and career advancement. Cohabitation in Other Countries: • Countries like Sweden and Denmark have high cohabitation rates, while others like Italy and Japan have lower rates. • In the Philippines and China, cohabitation is increasing, but with differences based on education and cultural norms. Marriage Trends Globally: • Marriage has declined in many countries, especially in rich nations like the U.S., France, and Japan. • In the U.S., the percentage of adults who are married dropped from 72% in 1960 to about 50% in 2010. The age of first marriage has also risen, with women marrying at an average of 26.5 and men at nearly 29 in 2010. Same-Sex Marriage: • In 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court legalized same-sex marriage nationwide. At that point, 36 U.S. states had already legalized it. • Worldwide, 29 countries allow same-sex marriage, with most in Europe and the Americas. Cultural Influences on Marriage: • Endogamy: Cultures often have rules about marrying within specific groups (e.g., race, social class, religion). • Homogamy: People often marry those with similar social characteristics. Arranged Marriages and Elopement: • Historically, marriages were arranged to preserve family wealth and traditions, but personal choice in partners has become more common. • Even in countries like India and Pakistan, younger generations are increasingly choosing their own partners, though arranged marriages are still common in rural areas. Marital Harmony and Communication: • John Gottman’s Research: Marriage success depends on how couples communicate, not just compatibility. • “Marriage Killers”: Contempt, criticism, defensiveness, and stonewalling undermine a relationship's health. • Positive Interactions: Having more positive interactions helps buffer against conflict and increases relationship satisfaction. Predictors of Marital Success: • Positive interactions and communication can predict marital stability. • Gottman’s research shows that a positive balance of interactions (small positive “deposits”) can help couples weather conflict more effectively. Intimate Partner Abuse Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV): • Women aged 18-34 experience the highest rates of intimate partner violence. • In 2016, over 1,800 women were murdered by men, with 93% of these women knowing their 13 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT killers. Guns were the most common weapon used. • The murder rate of women by men in single victim/single offender incidents decreased from 1.57 per 100,000 women in 1996 to 1.20 per 100,000 in 2016, but increased by 11% from 2014 to 2016. Types of Intimate Partner Violence: • Situational Couple Violence: Violence that escalates from conflict between partners. Both men and women equally engage in this type. • Intimate Terrorism: One partner uses ongoing violence and fear to dominate the other. More commonly used by men than women. National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS, 2015): • A large national survey found that women are disproportionately affected by IPV, sexual violence, and stalking compared to men. • Findings: o Sexual Violence: 1 in 3 women and 1 in 6 men experience some form of contact sexual violence in their lifetime. o Rape: Nearly 1 in 5 women and 1 in 39 men have been raped. o Sexual Coercion: 1 in 6 women and 1 in 10 men have experienced sexual coercion. o Severe Physical Violence: 1 in 5 women and 1 in 7 men experience severe physical violence by an intimate partner. o Stalking: 1 in 6 women and 1 in 19 men have been stalked during their lifetime. o Impact of IPV: Over 1 in 4 women and 1 in 10 men experience violence, with long-term impacts like PTSD, chronic pain, and poor mental health. o Psychological Aggression: 1 in 3 women and 1 in 4 men experience psychological aggression from an intimate partner. Health Consequences: • Individuals who experience IPV report: o Frequent headaches, chronic pain, sleep issues, activity limitations, poor physical and mental health. Parenthood Changes in Parenthood: • Parenthood in the U.S. is evolving: fewer children, more single-parent households, and later childbearing. • The average fertility rate in the U.S. has stabilized at 2.1 children per woman since the 1970s (compared to about 7 children per woman in the early 1900s). • Many women are having children later in life. For example, in 2014, the average age for first-time American mothers was 26.3 years. • Birth rates have decreased for women in their early 20s but increased for women in their late 30s. In 2011, 40% of births were to women 30+ years old. • Improved birth control methods have enabled women to delay motherhood, but most 18- to 29-year-olds still want to have children and view good parenting as a key life goal. Influences on Parenting: • Parenting is influenced by parent characteristics, child characteristics, and contextual factors. • Parent Characteristics: o Parents' age, gender, beliefs, personality, knowledge, and mental/physical health affect parenting. o Warmth, structure, and autonomy support from parents are linked to traits like agreeableness, conscientiousness, and low anxiety. o Parents' developmental histories (how they were raised) influence their own parenting style. o Parents dissatisfied with their own upbringing might change their parenting approach. • Child Characteristics: o Parenting is bidirectional: children also influence parents. o Child temperament (e.g., an easygoing or fussy child) affects how parents respond and feel about their parenting effectiveness. o Gender influences parenting styles. For example, girls are often assigned more household chores, while boys do tasks outside the home. Parents also talk differently to boys and girls, with more scientific explanations for sons and more emotional language for daughters. • Contextual Factors and Sociocultural Characteristics: o Parenting doesn't occur in isolation; factors like economic hardship, culture, social support, and neighborhoods impact how parents raise their children. o Parents facing financial strain may struggle with stress, depression, and frustration, which affects their parenting. 14 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o o o Culture significantly shapes parenting goals and methods. Different cultures prioritize various values, such as independence or social harmony. Social networks (neighborhoods, schools, family support) also affect parenting, even if the parent-child relationship is not directly involved. For example, Latina mothers in dangerous neighborhoods might show less warmth due to the stress of living in a threatening environment. 15 | H i k a m a c c h i