Chapter 4: Early Childhood

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Early Childhood (Ages 2 to 6) Coverage: • Early Childhood • Brain Maturation • Motor Skill Development • Toilet Training • Sleep • Sexual Development in Early Childhood • Nutritional Concerns • Piaget’s Preoperational Stage • Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development • Information Processing • Attention • Memory • Neo-Piagetians • Children’s Understanding of the World • Language Development • Bilingualism • Preschool • Autism Spectrum Disorder • Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt • Self-Concept and Self-Esteem • Self-Control • Gender • Theories of Gender Development • Transgender Children • Parenting Styles • Spanking • Sibling Relationships • Play • Children and the Media • Child Care • Child Abuse • Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Overall Growth: • Children grow 3 inches in height and gain 4 to 5 pounds each year. • Growth occurs in spurts rather than at a continuous rate. • Average measurements: o 2-year-old: 23–28 pounds, 33–35 inches tall. o 6-year-old: 40–50 pounds, 44–47 inches tall. • Body proportions change: By age 6, the torso lengthens and body proportions resemble those of an adult. Reduced Appetite: • Growth slows compared to infancy, leading to a reduced appetite. • This change can surprise parents, but it’s typical. • Caloric Needs: o 2–3 years: 1,000 to 1,400 calories. o 4–8 years: 1,200 to 2,000 calories. Brain Maturation Brain Weight: • By age 3, the brain is about 75% of its adult weight. • By age 6, it reaches about 95% of its adult weight. Myelination and Dendrite Development: • Myelination (the process of coating nerve fibers) and dendrite development continue, especially in the cortex. • This development supports improvements in thinking, strategizing, and emotion regulation. Prefrontal Cortex Development: • Growth in the prefrontal cortex (behind the forehead) allows better attention control and emotional regulation. • This helps children inhibit emotional outbursts and play games with improved understanding, planning, and coordination. Growth in Hemispheres and Corpus Callosum: • Left Hemisphere: Grows dramatically between ages 3 and 6, primarily responsible for language skills. • Right Hemisphere: Continues to grow, handling tasks like spatial skills, such as recognizing shapes and patterns. • Corpus Callosum: A band of fibers connecting the brain’s hemispheres, undergoes a growth spurt during early 1|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT childhood, enhancing coordination between both hemispheres. • The corpus callosum allows the integration of functions from both sides of the brain, such as visual information from the left eye being shared with the right hemisphere. Improved Coordination: • As the corpus callosum matures, coordination between the hemispheres improves, allowing for better physical tasks, like using both hands in activities (e.g., Etch A Sketch). • Younger children (under age 6) have difficulty performing tasks requiring hand coordination because their corpus callosum is still developing. Motor Skill Development Gross Motor Skills (Large body movements): • Ages 2-3: o Begin to run with better coordination. o Can kick a ball without losing balance. o Can pedal a tricycle at age 3. • Ages 4-5: o Improved balance (can hop on one foot). o Can throw a ball overhand with coordination. o Skips, jumps, and hops with good balance. o Stays balanced while standing on one foot with eyes closed. Fine Motor Skills (Small body movements): • Ages 2-3: o Able to build a tower of 6-7 cubes. o Can put on simple clothes (though better at removing clothes). o Can draw a person with 3 parts by age 3. o Can copy a circle and place small objects in small openings. • Ages 4-5: o Can cut out pictures with scissors. o Draws a square and can copy a triangle. o Manages a spoon and fork neatly while eating. o Can use a knife to spread soft foods. Children’s Art Development: • Age 2: Children begin with scribbles (around 20 types). • Age 3: Start creating basic shapes and combine them to make complex images. • Age 4-5: Produce more recognizable drawings, often of people or the world around them. • Tadpole Drawings: At age 3, children often draw “tadpoles” (simple figures of people). These drawings vary culturally, with Western children often drawing larger, more detailed figures, while rural children may draw smaller figures with fewer details. Cultural Influence on Art: • In Western cultures, children tend to draw larger figures with more facial detail and positive emotional expressions. • In non-Western rural cultures, figures tend to be smaller, with fewer facial details, and more neutral expressions, reflecting cultural values on the individual vs. the group. Development of Coordination: • Gross motor skills improve as children learn to integrate and coordinate large muscle groups (e.g., running, hopping). • Fine motor skills develop as children gain better control over smaller muscles, enabling tasks like drawing and using utensils. Toilet Training Timing of Toilet Training: • Typically occurs between 24-36 months. • Average age for girls: 29 months, for boys: 31 months. • 98% of children are trained by 36 months. Factors for Readiness: • Physical readiness: Can the child stay dry for long periods (e.g., 2 hours)? • Emotional readiness: Does the child show interest in the potty chair or toilet? • Other signs of readiness: o Can follow simple directions. o Can express discomfort about dirty or wet diapers. o Can pull pants up and down. Training Tips: • If training is started too early or met with resistance, take a break and try again later. • Daytime bladder control is usually mastered first (2-3 months of consistent training). • Nap and nighttime training may take months or years to master. Signs a Child May Not Be Ready: • If a child resists training or it doesn't seem successful after a few weeks, it's okay to pause. Elimination Disorders: • Enuresis: Repeated urination in bed or clothes (5-10% of 5-year-olds). • Encopresis: Repeated passage of feces in inappropriate places (1% of 5-year-olds). • Both conditions may require professional intervention. • More common in males than females. Tips for Parents (from Mayo Clinic): • Observe interest in potty training tools (potty chair, underwear). 2|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • Ensure the child can follow basic instructions and communicate needs. Look for signs of physical readiness, such as staying dry for longer periods. Sleep Variation in Sleep Needs by Age: • 2-year-olds: Need 15-16 hours of sleep per day. • 6-year-olds: Need 7-8 hours of sleep per day. General Trends: • Sleep needs decrease as children grow older. • Recommendations for sleep vary, but generally align with age-based guidelines. Sexual Development • • • • • • • Children have been thought of as innocent or incapable of sexual arousal. To associate the elements of seduction, power, love, or lust that is part of the adult meanings of sexuality would be inappropriate. Sexuality begins in childhood as a response to physical states and sensation and cannot be interpreted as similar to that of adults in any way. Infancy: o Boys and girls are capable of erections and vaginal lubrication even before birth . o Arousal can signal overall physical contentment and stimulation that accompanies feeding or warmth. Early Childhood: o Self-stimulation is common in early childhood for both boys and girls. o Curiosity about the body and about others’ bodies is a natural part of early childhood as well. o Masturbation is common for both boys and girls. Parents respond to this without undue alarm and without making the child feel guilty about their bodies. Messages about what is going on and the appropriate time and place for such activities help the child learn what is appropriate. Nutritional Concerns Changes in Appetite: • Children may develop a smaller appetite and a reluctance to try new foods. • They may have strong food preferences, often wanting foods served in a particular way. "Just Right" Phenomenon: • Many children exhibit ritualistic behaviors, like arranging toys or objects in symmetric patterns. • They may prefer specific routines (e.g., bedtime rituals, favorite clothes) for comfort and security. • These behaviors tend to decrease as children approach middle childhood. Malnutrition and Diet: • Malnutrition due to insufficient food is rare in developed countries, but many children still lack balanced diets. • In the U.S., added sugars and solid fats make up 40% of children’s daily calorie intake, with sources like soda, fruit drinks, dairy desserts, pizza, and whole milk contributing to poor nutrition. Setting Taste Preferences: • The foods children are exposed to in early childhood can set their taste preferences for years. • High-fat, sweet, and salty foods may make it harder for children to enjoy healthier options, like fruits and vegetables. Tips for Establishing Healthy Eating Patterns: • Recognize Appetite Variations: Children may have inconsistent appetites; don’t worry if they don’t eat at every meal. • Keep Mealtime Pleasant: Avoid arguments or stress during mealtime to ensure a positive eating experience. • No Short Order Chefs: Avoid preparing different meals for each family member; children should eat what is served to help build healthy eating habits. • Limit Choices: Offer one or two meal options rather than an open-ended question about what the child wants to eat. • Serve Balanced Meals: Prepare homemade meals with a variety of nutrients instead of relying on fast food or frozen dinners. • Avoid Bribing: Don’t bribe children to eat certain foods (e.g., promising dessert for vegetables), as this can create unhealthy food preferences. • Don’t Force Eating: Avoid making mealtime a power struggle. Let children explore food without forcing them to eat. Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Preoperational Stage (Ages 2-7): • Children use symbols (e.g., words, images, ideas) to represent objects and concepts. • Pretend play is common (e.g., using arms as airplane wings or a stick as a sword). o Cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information. 3|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Cognitive logic is based on personal experiences, not conventional knowledge. Two Substages of Preoperational Stage: • Symbolic Function Substage (Ages 2-4): o Children can mentally represent objects that are not present. o Depend on perception for problemsolving. • Intuitive Thought Substage (Ages 4-7): o More reliance on intuitive thinking, rather than logic or evidence. o Children ask many questions as they attempt to understand the world. Cognitive Concepts in Early Childhood: • Pretend Play: o Children use objects in new ways during pretend play (e.g., a teddy bear as a queen). o Pretend play helps solidify cognitive schemata and encourages learning. • Egocentrism: o Children struggle to understand others' perspectives, assuming everyone sees, thinks, and feels the same way they do. o Example: A child buys a toy for a sibling, thinking they will like the same toy. • Piaget’s Classic Experiment on Egocentrism: o Children choose the perspective they know (e.g., their own view) when asked what a doll might see from a different angle. o By age 7, children begin to understand other perspectives. • Conservation Errors: o Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement. o Example: Cutting a pizza into more pieces does not make it a larger quantity. o Centration: Focusing on one aspect (e.g., height) and ignoring others, leading to errors in conservation. • Piaget’s Classic Conservation Experiment: o Two glasses of liquid are shown as equal. When one is poured into a taller glass, young children typically think the taller glass has more liquid, ignoring the fact the volume remains unchanged. • Classification Errors: o Young children struggle with classifying objects in more than one way. o Example: A child might say there are more black buttons than buttons overall, as they don’t consider the larger category of buttons. • Animism: o Attributing lifelike qualities to inanimate objects. o Example: Thinking a chair is "mean" if it hurts them or that toys are tired and need rest. Critique of Piaget: • Some psychologists argue Piaget underestimated preoperational children's abilities. • Cultural Influence: Children from certain cultures (e.g., pottery-making families) may develop conservation abilities at younger ages. • Preoperational children may be less egocentric than Piaget suggested, with research showing they overcome egocentrism by age 4-5. • Studies show children can think rationally about mathematical and scientific tasks earlier than Piaget thought. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development • Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) emphasized the importance of culture in shaping cognitive development. • Unlike Piaget and Gesell, who believed development was driven by the child alone, Vygotsky argued that social interactions, language, and cultural concepts are crucial for cognitive growth. Concepts: • Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): o The ZPD is the gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with assistance. o Teaching should occur within the ZPD, helping the child almost complete a task on their own with the right support. o A good teacher identifies the child’s ZPD and provides temporary support (scaffolding), gradually withdrawing assistance as the child gains independence. • Scaffolding: o Temporary support provided by an adult (or more knowledgeable peer) to help a child complete a task they can't do alone. o Over time, as the child learns, the support is reduced until the child can perform the task independently. 4|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Private Speech: o Vygotsky believed children talk to themselves as a way to solve problems or clarify their thoughts. o Unlike Piaget, who saw this as egocentric speech, Vygotsky saw it as a tool for cognitive development. o Over time, this private speech becomes internalized as inner speech, which is used for thinking and problem-solving without speaking out loud. Comparison with Piaget: • Piaget’s View: Piaget was against teacherdirected instruction, believing it made children passive learners who simply repeat information without truly understanding it. He argued children learn best through selfdiscovery. • Vygotsky’s View: Vygotsky, in contrast, believed that children need instruction from adults or more knowledgeable peers to reach higher cognitive levels. Learning from others is essential for development. Information Processing • Information processing research focuses on cognitive development in early childhood, specifically improvements in attention, memory, and executive functions. Areas of Focus: • Attention Skills: o Improvement in children’s ability to focus and maintain attention during tasks. • Working Memory and Executive Functions: o Working Memory: The capacity to hold and manipulate information in the mind over short periods. o Executive Functions: Skills such as planning, self-control, and problemsolving that begin to emerge during early childhood. • Memory Development: o Early childhood is a critical period for memory development. o Memory Strategies: Techniques children begin to use to improve memory, like rehearsal or categorization. o Memory Accuracy: How children’s recall of information becomes more accurate as they age. o Autobiographical Memory: The ability to remember personal experiences, which starts to develop in early childhood. Attention in Early Childhood • Attention is a critical factor in memory development and consists of multiple subprocesses. • The ability to focus and manage attention improves significantly in early childhood. Types of Attention: • Divided Attention (Multitasking): o The ability to switch focus between two tasks or stimuli. o Young Children (3-4 years): Have difficulty dividing attention and perform similarly to chimpanzees. o By Age 5: Children improve and surpass chimpanzees, but still lag behind older children and adults. • Selective Attention: o The ability to focus on one task or stimulus while ignoring distractions. o Improvement with Age: As children grow, they become better at selective attention. o Influencing Factors: Affected by temperament, task complexity, and whether stimuli are visual or auditory. o Visual vs. Auditory Attention: Children tend to focus better on visual stimuli than auditory ones (e.g., difficulty hearing a teacher over background noise in a classroom). • Sustained Attention: o The ability to stay focused on a task for extended periods of time, even with distractions. o Younger Children (3-7 years): Struggle more with maintaining attention over time. o Example Study: In a study, children were asked to press a button when shown a target image but refrain when a non-target appeared. Younger children had more difficulty maintaining attention. Memory Stages of Memory: • Sensory Memory: o First stage in the memory system, stores raw sensory input briefly for processing. o Auditory sensory memory improves with age: ▪ 2-year-olds: Memory trace lasts ~1 second. ▪ 3-year-olds: ~2 seconds. ▪ 4-year-olds: ~2 seconds. 5|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT ▪ 6-year-olds: ~3-5 seconds. Short-Term/Working Memory: o Stores current conscious thoughts and requires effort and attention to function. o Capacity: Younger children hold less information than older children/adults. ▪ Example: A 5-year-old can hold a 4-digit number, while an adult can hold a 7-digit number. o Working memory capacity limits a child's ability to handle complex tasks. • Executive Function: o Refers to self-regulatory processes like inhibition and cognitive flexibility that help adapt to new situations or goals. o Improves gradually with age and experience, influenced by brain development (especially the prefrontal cortex). o Higher executive function is associated with responsive, scaffolding parenting and cognitively stimulating environments. • Long-Term Memory: o Permanent storage of information. o Divided into: ▪ Declarative (Explicit) Memory: Conscious recollection of facts/events. ▪ Semantic Memory: Facts and general knowledge. ▪ Episodic Memory: Memories tied to specific events. ▪ Non-Declarative (Implicit) Memory: Automatic skills not requiring conscious recollection (e.g., walking, writing). Autobiographical Memory: • Personal narrative of past experiences. • Infantile Amnesia: Adults lack memories from infancy and early childhood. • Factors influencing autobiographical memory: o Brain maturation, language development, parent-child conversations, and self-awareness. • 2-year-olds remember fragments but need prompting from adults. • By ages 2-3, children recall more details, eventually forming coherent autobiographical memories as they grow. Memory Strategies: • • • • Rote rehearsal: Repeating information to memorize it, but young children often don’t use this unless prompted. Clustering rehearsal: Repeating information while adding new details, a strategy young children don’t typically use without guidance. Memory performance improves as children age and begin using more effective memory strategies. Neo-Piagetians • Neo-Piagetians provide updated interpretations of Piaget's theory, incorporating more current research. • They blend Piaget’s concepts with Information Processing theories. • These theories emerged in the 1970s and focus on the cognitive development process. Concepts: • Constructivism: Like Piaget, Neo-Piagetians believe children actively construct knowledge. • Development in Stages: Cognitive development is separated into different stages with qualitatively different characteristics, similar to Piaget’s theory. • Increased Complexity in Thinking: As children age, their thinking becomes more complex, reflecting the advanced stages of development. Differences from Piaget: • Information Processing: Neo-Piagetians argue that it’s not just logical reasoning (as Piaget believed) that changes between stages, but the complexity of cognitive processes due to information processing factors. • They emphasize working memory capacity as a limiting factor in early cognitive development, influenced by biological maturation. Biological Maturation and Cognitive Development: • Working Memory: As children grow, the capacity of their working memory increases, supporting more complex thinking and reasoning. • Neurodevelopmental Processes: o Myelination, axonal pruning, synaptic pruning, and changes in cerebral metabolism all contribute to cognitive development. o Myelination: It occurs in waves between birth and adolescence, improving the efficiency of certain cognitive skills. • Brain Maturation: Cognitive development is influenced by spurts of brain maturation, 6|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT affecting when and how cognitive abilities develop. Interaction of Experience and Maturation: • Cognitive development results from the interaction between biological maturation and learning/experience. Both play significant roles in shaping cognitive skills over time. Children’s Understanding of the World Constructivism: • Piaget: Cognitive constructivism, focused on independent learning. • Vygotsky: Social constructivism, emphasizing social interactions for learning. Theory-Theory: • Children naturally generate theories to explain everything they encounter. • This aligns with human curiosity—children ask questions and create their own explanations when answers don’t satisfy them. • As they experience new events, they revise their theories, much like scientists refining their ideas. Theory of Mind: • The ability to think about other people’s thoughts and predict their reactions. • Crucial for social development and understanding others' mental states. • False Belief Task: A test to assess a child’s theory of mind: o A story is shown where a child (Sally) hides a ball, and another (Anne) moves it. o The child is asked where Sally will look for the ball when she returns. The correct answer is the basket, where Sally originally put it, not the box where it was moved. o Young children (especially under age 4) struggle with this task because they confuse what they know with what others believe. o Success requires understanding that people can act based on false beliefs, not just reality. Piaget’s Egocentrism: • Children must overcome egocentrism (seeing things only from their own perspective) to succeed in the false belief task. • They need to grasp that people act according to their beliefs, even if those beliefs are false. Development of Theory of Mind: • Age 2-3: Children understand that others may have different desires. • Age 4-5: Children start to grasp false beliefs and understand that others can have different thoughts. • Middle Childhood: Children begin to understand that people may hide their true feelings. Cultural Influences on Theory of Mind: • Western Cultures: Emphasize autonomy and independent thinking, leading children to grasp diversity of beliefs earlier. • Collectivistic Cultures (e.g., China, Iran): Emphasize respect for elders and conformity, which leads children to acquire "knowledge access" earlier. • Children with siblings, especially older ones, tend to develop theory of mind earlier due to exposure to conflicts in beliefs. Social Intelligence: • Understanding theory of mind contributes to social intelligence—recognizing that others think differently, which helps with empathy, communication, and social skills. • This ability helps children predict others' actions and better navigate social interactions. Language Development Vocabulary Growth: • Between ages 2-6, children's vocabulary grows from about 200 to 10,000 words. • Vocabulary spurt: Children learn 10-20 new words per week. • Fast-mapping: Connecting new words to known concepts helps in quick word learning. Parts of Speech: • Children learn different parts of speech depending on the language spoken: o Verb-friendly languages (e.g., Chinese, Japanese) help children learn verbs more easily. o Noun-friendly languages (e.g., English) lead children to learn nouns first. o Grammar: English-speaking children, learning fewer verbs, may need more help mastering verbs. Literal Meanings: • Children often repeat words and phrases they’ve heard but may not understand the meaning. • Figures of Speech: Children may take expressions literally. E.g., hearing "a piece of cake" and asking where the cake is. Overregularization: • Children apply grammar rules incorrectly at first. E.g., using “goed” instead of “went” or “doed” instead of “did.” • Common between ages 2-3, as they learn rules like adding “-ed” for past tense. • With time, they learn exceptions (e.g., "went" instead of "goed"). The Impact of Training (Vygotsky's Theory): 7|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • • • Zone of Proximal Development: Children learn better with help from others. Guidance & Scaffolding: Adults can assist by listening, modeling proper pronunciation, and encouraging more elaboration. Example: When a child says “I goed there,” an adult can guide them: “Say, ‘I went there.’ Where did you go?” Active Participation: While children may be “ripe” for learning, they still need active support to develop language skills. Bilingualism Prevalence of Bilingualism: • The majority of children worldwide are bilingual, using two languages. • In the U.S., over 60 million people (21%) speak a language other than English at home. • Bilingual children are one of the fastestgrowing groups in the U.S., making up about 30% of children in early childhood programs like Head Start. Language Skills in Dual Language Learners: • Dual language learners can have varying language and literacy skills upon entering school. • Language proficiency depends on: o Quantity: Amount of exposure to each language. o Quality: How well the languages are spoken to the child. o Opportunity: How often the child has chances to use the language. • Children may hear the same number of words as monolingual children, but split between two languages. • Expressive and receptive skills may be stronger in the language the child hears most. Language Use in Bilingual Homes: • Bilingual children may respond in the majority language, even if the parents speak the family’s heritage language. • Example: In Spanish-English homes, children often respond in English even when parents speak Spanish. • As a result, receptive skills may be similar in both languages, but expressive skills may be stronger in the majority language (e.g., English). Cognitive Benefits of Bilingualism: • Cognitive Executive Function: o Bilingual children often outperform monolingual children in inhibitory control (ignoring irrelevant info). o Bilinguals show advantages in verbal and non-verbal working memory. o However, this advantage may not always be observed in lower SES populations. Advantages in Word Learning: • Mutual-Exclusivity Bias: Monolingual children assume objects have only one name (e.g., “car” vs. “automobile”). • Bilinguals: Have no difficulty learning multiple names for objects (e.g., “car” and “automobile”) due to frequent translation between languages. • Bilinguals are more efficient in learning new words, as they are used to switching between languages. Preschool Education Universal Preschool Advocacy: • Universal preschool has been a key topic for U.S. policymakers. • In 2013, President Obama advocated for highquality preschool for all children. • In 2014, a White House Summit on Early Education emphasized its importance. • Universal preschool for all four-year-olds would require significant funding. NAEYC (National Association for the Education of Young Children) Standards for High-Quality Preschool: • Positive relationships among children and adults. • Comprehensive curriculum supporting social, emotional, physical, language, and cognitive development. • Developmentally, culturally, and linguistically appropriate teaching approaches. • Ongoing assessment of children’s progress. • Promotion of health and nutrition, ensuring children are protected from illness and injury. • Qualified teachers with knowledge and commitment to children’s learning. • Collaborative relationships with families. • Community partnerships to support the program’s goals. • Safe, well-maintained physical environments (both indoor and outdoor). • Qualified leadership maintaining licensure status. Choosing the Right Preschool: • Parents should use the NAEYC criteria to help choose the best preschool for their child. • There are different types of preschools, including: o Montessori o Waldorf o Reggio Emilia o High Scope o Parent Co-Ops 8|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o Bank Street These programs focus on discovery-based learning, where teachers guide and create activities based on a child’s developmental level. Head Start Program: • Head Start was created in 1965 as part of President Lyndon Johnson’s War on Poverty. • It serves nearly one million children and costs about $7.5 billion annually. • Head Start provides preschool education to children from low-income families. Effectiveness of Head Start: • Concerns about its long-term effectiveness have been raised since its inception. Research findings: • Some studies show no lasting educational gains for children in Head Start compared to those not attending preschool. • A 2015 evaluation by the What Works Clearinghouse found: o Positive effects on reading achievement for 3- and 4-year-olds. o No noticeable effects on math or social-emotional development. • Lack of control groups in studies makes it hard to measure effectiveness accurately. • Differences in Head Start programs (e.g., program length, teacher qualifications) may affect results. • Testing young children is challenging, as results are influenced by their comfort and language skills. • Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Overview Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties in three main areas: • Social interaction: Difficulty initiating conversations, avoiding eye contact, and preferring to play alone. • Communication: Challenges with speech (e.g., lack of speech, one-word responses, echoing speech, difficulty maintaining conversations), and trouble understanding nonverbal cues. • Repetitive behaviors/interests: Stereotyped movements (e.g., rocking, head-banging), distress at small changes, and intense fixation on specific interests. Spectrum Nature: • "Spectrum" refers to the varying severity of symptoms among individuals. Some may have mild symptoms, while others may have severe impairments. • Asperger’s Disorder was previously seen as a milder form of ASD but is now included under the ASD category in the DSM-5 due to lack of distinct differences. Prevalence: • ASD affects about 1 in 59 children in the U.S. (as of 2014 data). • Boys are more likely to be diagnosed, with a ratio of 1 in 38 boys vs. 1 in 152 girls. • Prevalence rates have increased significantly since the 1980s, possibly due to broadened diagnosis, increased awareness, and better identification. Causes: • Genetics play a strong role: Higher concordance rates in identical twins (60%90%) compared to fraternal twins or siblings (5%-10%). • Environmental factors: Exposure to pollutants, urban living, and vitamin D deficiency may increase risk. • Prenatal infections: Studies show maternal infections during pregnancy, such as flu or pneumonia, increase the risk for ASD. • Vaccination myths: No scientific evidence links vaccines to ASD development. A study found no correlation between vaccine immunogens and the development of ASD. Impact: • Some individuals with ASD, especially those with better language and intellectual skills, can live independently. • However, many individuals face serious challenges in social, educational, and professional areas due to the disorder’s impairments. Erikson's Stage: Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood) Stage: • This stage occurs during preschool years (around ages 3-6). • Builds on the previous stages of trust and autonomy, leading to a desire for initiative— the ability to think of ideas and take action. Developmental Focus: • Children develop a sense of initiative through exploring and creating. • Examples of initiative include: o Building forts with cushions. o Setting up a lemonade stand. o Organizing pretend activities (e.g., creating a zoo with stuffed animals). Encouraging Initiative: • Caregivers should encourage children to take action and try new things. • Positive reinforcement is crucial—praise children for their efforts, even if their actions are messy or imperfect. • Examples: 9|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o o Displaying their drawings on the fridge. Encouraging creative activities like making mud pies or building with Legos. Avoiding Guilt: • Guilt develops if children are overly criticized for their initiatives or mistakes, which can hinder their confidence and desire to act. • It's important for caregivers to avoid being overly critical or discouraging. • The goal of this stage is for children to develop a sense of initiative and feel proud of their ability to take action and try new things. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem Self-Concept: • The way we describe ourselves based on various qualities (both external and internal). • Early childhood (ages 3-6) is a time when children start developing their self-concept. • External qualities (e.g., physical appearance, possessions, activities) are the primary way children describe themselves. For example, a 3-year-old might say: "I am a 3-year-old girl with red hair who likes to play with Legos." Categorical Self: • This is when children focus on external characteristics (physical traits, possessions) to define themselves. • This is common in children around 3-4 years old. Self-Esteem: • An evaluative judgment about who we are— how positively or negatively we view ourselves. • Early childhood: Children generally have positive self-esteem due to the lack of social comparison (i.e., they are not yet comparing themselves to others). • Self-esteem is also influenced by comparison between past abilities and current abilities (children feel proud of progress). Improvement of Self-Concept: • As cognitive skills develop, children gain a better understanding of themselves, including internal qualities (e.g., personality traits, preferences). • Researchers suggest using statements (e.g., "I like to boss people around") instead of open-ended questions to measure selfconcept, as younger children might have difficulty expressing their self-awareness. Social and Emotional Influences: • Children with insecure attachments to caregivers often have lower self-esteem by age four. • Negative emotions from mothers (e.g., maternal negative affect) are linked to more negative self-evaluations in preschool-aged children. Optimism in Early Childhood: • Preschoolers often have optimistic selfimages due to lack of social comparison and positive comparisons between past and present abilities. Self-Control Self-control is a multi-faceted process that involves: • Response initiation: Ability to not act impulsively before evaluating information. • Response inhibition: Ability to stop a behavior that has already started. • Delayed gratification: Ability to wait for a larger reward by forgoing a smaller, immediate reward. Development of Self-Control: • Early childhood marks the beginning of selfcontrol development, which continues to improve over many years. Marshmallow Test (Mischel, Ebbesen, & Zeiss, 1972): • Children are given a choice between a small immediate reward (a marshmallow) or a larger delayed reward (more marshmallows). • Finding: The ability to delay gratification at age 4 predicted better academic performance and health later in life (Mischel et al., 2011). Relation to Executive Function: • Self-control is connected to executive function (skills for managing thoughts, actions, and emotions). • As executive function improves, children become less impulsive (Traverso et al., 2015). Gender Development Gender Identity: • Gender identity is a person’s sense of self as male or female. • It develops through a combination of biological, social, and representational influences (Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006). Preschool Children’s Gender Awareness: • Preschool-aged children become more curious about the differences between boys and girls, both physically and in terms of acceptable activities. 10 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • By age 2, children can identify if they are a boy or girl, but they develop a deeper understanding of what it means to be male or female during preschool years. Gender Roles: • Gender roles refer to the expectations associated with being male or female in a particular culture. • These roles are learned through gender socialization, which involves society's influence through parents, peers, media, schools, and other institutions. Early Gender Socialization: • Socialization begins even before birth, with parents forming expectations based on the baby’s sex (e.g., associating blue with boys and pink with girls). • Parent-child interactions: o Female infants are held more, talked to more, and given more direct eye contact. o Male infants often engage with toys or activities instead of direct interaction. Gendered Expectations for Behavior: • Boys are often given tasks outside the house, performed occasionally. • Girls are typically given daily indoor chores (e.g., cleaning, cooking). • Sons are encouraged to think for themselves, while daughters are often given more assistance with problem-solving. Differences in Communication: • Parents talk to sons more about science and numbers and use more detailed explanations. • Parents engage with daughters less about these topics and discuss other things more frequently, highlighting gender-based communication differences (Chang, Sandhofer, & Brown, 2011). Theories of Gender Development Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1997): • Behavior is learned through observation, modeling, reinforcement, and punishment. • Children are reinforced for behaviors that align with gender roles and punished for breaking them. • Modeling: Children learn gender roles by imitating adults and older children, which helps them understand what behaviors are appropriate for each gender. Cognitive Social Learning Theory (Bussey & Bandura, 1999): • Similar to Social Learning Theory but adds cognitive processes. • Cognitive processes include attention, selfregulation, and self-efficacy. • Once children understand gender roles, they regulate their behavior based on internalized gender norms. Gender Schema Theory (Bem, 1981): • Children develop their own understanding of maleness or femaleness. • After identifying with a gender, they actively seek out information about gender traits, behaviors, and roles. • This theory is more constructivist, emphasizing that children actively acquire their gender identity through interactions and cultural expectations. • For example, children may learn gender norms through friendships and discussions about acceptable behaviors. Developmental Intergroup Theory (Bigler & Liben, 2007): • Gender stereotypes are strong because gender is heavily emphasized in culture. • Adults' focus on gender encourages children to view it as a key aspect of their identity. • Children then look for gender differences and form rigid stereotypes that are difficult to change. Transgender Children Non-Conformity to Gender Roles: • Some children reject gender roles assigned by society and prefer the toys, clothes, and anatomy of the opposite sex. • Around 0.3% of the U.S. population identifies as transgender (Olson & Gülgöz, 2018). • Transgender adults often report identifying with the opposite gender from an early age (Russo, 2016). Gender Dysphoria: • Some transgender children experience gender dysphoria, which is distress caused by the mismatch between their gender identity and biological sex (APA, 2013). • Not all transgender children experience discomfort with their gender identity. Social Transition: • A social transition involves transgender children changing their appearance, pronouns, and social roles to align with their gender identity. • A longitudinal study in 2013 followed 300 socially transitioned transgender children (ages 3-12) and found their gender development mirrored that of cisgender children. 11 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Transgender children who are supported by their families and live according to their gender identity showed positive mental health. Intersex Individuals: • Some transgender individuals are also intersex, meaning they are born with variations in their reproductive organs, hormones, or chromosomes (Jarne & Auld, 2006). • Intersex conditions are diverse, with examples including: o Turner syndrome: absence or abnormality in the second X chromosome. o Congenital adrenal hyperplasia: a genetic disorder causing excess androgen production. o Androgen insensitivity syndrome: a condition where individuals with XY chromosomes are resistant to male hormones. Support for Gender Identity: • Gender socialization begins at birth, and children learn gender expectations from adults, culture, toys, media, etc. (Khorr, 2017). • It's essential for children to be supported in expressing their gender identity, especially when it goes against societal stereotypes. This support helps them feel valued and develop a secure sense of self (American Academy of Pediatricians, 2015). Parenting Styles Baumrind’s Parenting Model: • Developed a model focusing on control/expectations and warmth/responsiveness from parents. • 4 Parenting Styles based on these dimensions: o Authoritative Parenting: ▪ High expectations with warmth and support. ▪ Parents encourage independence, allow mistakes, and communicate well. ▪ Democratic approach, children are allowed to negotiate. ▪ Leads to children with greater competence, self-confidence, and good behavior. o Authoritarian Parenting: ▪ High expectations but low warmth. ▪ Parents enforce strict rules and demand obedience. ▪ Often aloof and distant, children may fear parents. ▪ Can lead to children with lower self-esteem and poor social relationships. o Permissive Parenting: ▪ Low expectations, parents are warm but provide little structure. ▪ Children set their own rules and activities. ▪ Results in children lacking selfdiscipline and security. o Uninvolved Parenting: ▪ Low expectations and low responsiveness. ▪ Parents are disengaged and don't interact much. ▪ Children may struggle in school and peer relationships. Parenting Styles in Real Life: • Most parents do not fit strictly into one category; they may blend styles. • Parenting style can shift based on energy levels, mood, and external factors (e.g., peer pressure, personal circumstances). Cultural Impact on Parenting Styles: • Individualistic Cultures (e.g., U.S.) value independence, self-reliance, and responsibility. Authoritative parenting works best here. • Collectivistic Cultures (e.g., China, Korea) emphasize obedience and compliance, where Authoritarian parenting is more common. Social Class and Parenting: • Working-class parents: Emphasize obedience, reliability, and honesty, traits useful for jobs requiring following orders. • Middle-class parents: Encourage independence, assertiveness, and initiative, important for professional and self-directed careers. Cultural Differences: • Different cultures prioritize different behaviors (e.g., independence vs. obedience), influencing parenting styles. • Parenting styles may be based on what is needed for survival or success in a specific culture or economy. Spanking Spanking as Discipline: • Spanking is still commonly used by parents, but its effectiveness and consequences are controversial. • Studies show that physical punishment (including spanking) can lead to: o Increased aggression o Antisocial behavior o Physical injury 12 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o Mental health problems Research Findings: • Gershoff (2008) recommends avoiding physical punishment due to its negative effects. • A longitudinal study (MacKenzie et al., 2013) found: o Children spanked frequently (2+ times/week) had higher levels of aggression and rule-breaking. o Children spanked by fathers performed worse on vocabulary tests. o Negative effects of spanking were seen on both behavioral (aggression) and cognitive (vocabulary) outcomes. International Perspective: • Many countries (46 countries) have banned physical punishment, recognizing it as a violation of children's human rights. • The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (2014) refers to physical punishment as “legalized violence” and advocates for its elimination. Alternatives to Spanking: • Child development experts recommend alternative discipline methods, including: o Praising and modeling appropriate behavior o Time-outs for misbehavior o Giving choices to children o Helping children identify emotions and learn calming techniques o Ignoring small annoyances to avoid unnecessary conflict o Withdrawing privileges for misbehavior Sibling Relationships Role of Siblings in Development: • Siblings spend significant time together and contribute to each other's social development. • Interactions between siblings, especially in cooperative and pretend play, teach important social skills: o Empathy o Sharing o Cooperation o Negotiation and conflict resolution Influence of Parent-Child Relationship: • The quality of sibling relationships is affected by the parent-child relationship and the child’s psychological adjustment. • Negative sibling interactions are more common in families with poor communication between parents and children. • Emotional and behavioral problems in children can lead to negative sibling interactions. Sibling Conflicts: • Conflicts are inevitable, but they can promote growth in social and cognitive skills. • Sources of conflict change with age: o Early childhood: Disputes about property rights (e.g., toys). o Middle childhood: Disagreements over social situations (e.g., which game to play, facts, opinions). Conflict Resolution Strategies: • Children use different strategies based on the nature of the conflict and their age: o Coercive strategies (e.g., threats) are common in disputes over property. o Reasoning is more common in older siblings, especially in social situations. o Younger siblings often use reasoning with a focus on legitimacy (e.g., “You’re not the boss”) to assert autonomy. Positive Conflict Resolution: • Non-coercive strategies (e.g., compromise) lead to better outcomes, where both siblings feel satisfied with the resolution. • Positive sibling relationships are linked to better interactions with peers. • Sibling relationships are crucial for learning social skills. • Conflicts, when managed well, contribute to children's development of important social abilities. • Positive sibling dynamics can enhance peer relationships. Play Theories of Play: • Freud: Play helps children release pent-up emotions and cope with distress in a safe space. • Vygotsky and Piaget: Play aids in developing intellectual abilities. • All three theorists agree that play has positive outcomes for children. Parten's Classification of Play: • Non-social Play (more common in younger children): o Unoccupied Play: Random, aimless behavior with no specific goal (least common). o Solitary Play: Playing alone, not interacting with others. o Onlooker Play: Watching other children play, commenting but not joining. • Social Play (more common as children get older): o Parallel Play: Playing alongside others, using similar toys, but no direct interaction. 13 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o Associative Play: Interacting and sharing toys, but not working toward a common goal. o Cooperative Play: Working together to achieve a common goal, with roles and tasks. Imaginary Companions: • Invisible characters, personified objects (like dolls), or characters children impersonate. • Prevalence: Estimates of children with imaginary companions range from 6% to 65%. • Development: o Often based on real people, story characters, or names the child has heard. o Imaginary companions can change over time (e.g., gaining superpowers, changing age/gender). • Social Skills: o Contrary to popular belief, children with imaginary companions tend to be sociable. o These children are often first-borns or only-children, but the research on this is mixed. Relationship with Real Friends: • Children view their imaginary companions as supportive and nurturing, similar to real friends. • Suggests that children use the same “friend” schema for both imaginary and real friends. Children and the Media Media Consumption: • Children today watch much more television than in the 1960s, earning them the nickname "Generation M for Media." • Almost all American families have a TV, with many having three or more (Nielsen Company, 2009). • Two-thirds of children age six and under watch television daily, often for around two hours (Rideout & Hamel, 2006). Impact of Television on Children: • Negative Effects on Behavior: Excessive TV viewing can negatively affect children’s behavior, health, and achievement (Gentile & Walsh, 2002). • Cognitive & Language Development: TV distracts children from hands-on play and can hinder cognitive development, language skills, and attention (Schmidt, Pempek, & Kirkorian, 2008; Courage, Murphy, & Goulding, 2010). • Attention Problems: Background TV, even when children are engaged in other activities, can lead to attention difficulties later in life (Schmidt et al., 2008). Mobile Devices and Screen Time: • Mobile Device Use: Many young children use mobile devices, primarily for games (Chiong & Schuler, 2010). • Negative Outcomes: Excessive screen time (over 2 hours per day) on mobile devices is linked to: o Behavioral issues: Increased aggression, tantrums, and inattention (Tamana et al., 2019). o Health concerns: Shorter sleep durations, higher risk of behavioral problems (Wu, 2017). o Delayed development: Delays in motor skills, language, and problemsolving (Madigan et al., 2019). Recommendations by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP): • Under 2 Years: Children should engage in hands-on play and social interaction, avoiding digital media as it doesn’t promote effective learning for this age group. • Ages 2-5: Limit screen time to one hour per day of high-quality programs co-viewed with a caregiver to help with understanding. • Avoid Using Media to Soothe: Using mobile devices to distract or soothe children can hinder emotional self-regulation and make it harder for parents to limit screen time. Child Care Workforce Participation of Mothers: • In 2018, 71.5% of mothers with school-aged children and 65.1% of mothers with preschool-aged children in the U.S. worked outside the home (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019). • Despite more women working, the amount of time spent with children has increased. • In 1965, mothers spent 54 minutes/day caring for children, while in 2012 they spent 104 minutes/day (Economist Data Team, 2017). • Fathers spent 59 minutes/day in 2012, a significant increase from 16 minutes/day in 1965. • Higher-educated mothers (university degree) spent more time on child care compared to mothers without a degree by 30 minutes/day in 2012. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study (2006): • Longitudinal study (began in 1991) followed 1364 children from diverse backgrounds and assessed the effects of child care on development. • Child Care Definition: Care provided by someone other than the child's mother on a regular basis (more than 10 hours/week). 14 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Results showed that children cared for by mothers did not develop differently from those in child care, indicating parental characteristics (education, income, emotional support) were more influential on development. Child Care Quality: • Higher Quality Care: o Better cognitive, language, and social competence. o More school readiness. o Higher adult-to-child ratios, smaller group sizes, and well-trained caregivers. • Lower Quality Care: o Linked to behavioral problems and poorer cognitive and language development. Factors Affecting Child Care Quality: • Teacher-to-child ratio: The lower the ratio, the more positive, relaxed, and stimulating interactions between children and teachers. • Physical Environment: Care centers should be clean, colorful, stimulating, and safe. • Curriculum and Philosophy: Child-centered, positive, and stimulating programs are ideal. • Training for Care Providers: Early childhood education training is essential for understanding and addressing children's needs, though many states don’t require formal training for child care providers. Improving Child Care: • Enhancing Quality: Improving child care standards can lead to better cognitive and emotional outcomes for children. • Family-Friendly Work Policies: Flexible scheduling and on-site childcare at workplaces can help reduce the stress of balancing work and family life. Child Abuse The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (2013) defines child abuse as any act or failure to act by a parent or caretaker that results in: • Death • Serious physical or emotional harm • Sexual abuse or exploitation • Imminent risk of harm. Four major types of maltreatment recognized by states: • Neglect • Physical abuse • Psychological maltreatment • Sexual abuse • Abuse can occur in combination with other forms of maltreatment. Victims of Child Abuse: • In 2017, 4.1 million referrals for child abuse were received, involving about 7.5 million children. • Rate of abuse: 31.8 per 1,000 children. • 65.7% of reports were made by professionals (law enforcement, education, social services). • 17.3% of reports were made by nonprofessionals (family, friends, neighbors). • Highest victimization rate: Infants (25.3 per 1,000 children). • Most victims: White (44.6%), Hispanic (22.3%), and African-American (20.7%) children. • Neglect (74.9%) and physical abuse (18.3%) were the most common forms of maltreatment. • In 2017, an estimated 1,720 children died from abuse and neglect. The majority were under 3 years old. Sexual Abuse: • Defined as any sexual contact between a child and an adult or much older child. • Incest refers to sexual contact between a child and family members. • 1 in 4 girls and 1 in 10 boys have been sexually abused (Valente, 2005). • Median age for sexual abuse: 8 or 9 years old for both genders (Finkelhorn et al., 1990). • Boys may be less likely to report abuse due to cultural expectations and stigma. • Girls are more likely to be abused by family members, while boys are more often abused by strangers. • Effects of sexual abuse include: o Self-blame, guilt, shame, and betrayal. o Can lead to depression, anxiety, intimacy issues, and suicidal thoughts. Stress on Young Children: • Normal stress helps children build coping skills and is not harmful to development. • Toxic stress (e.g., ongoing abuse) can have long-lasting negative effects. • Prolonged stress can harm brain structures (hippocampus, amygdala) responsible for: o Memory. o Emotional regulation. • High cortisol levels can: o Reduce the size of the hippocampus. o Weaken the immune system. • Children exposed to chronic stress may develop a low threshold for future stress, leading to hypersensitivity. 15 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) • • ACEs are potentially traumatic experiences that occur before the age of 18, including: o Abuse (physical, emotional, sexual) o Neglect o Household dysfunction (mental illness, substance abuse, domestic violence, parental separation, incarcerated household member) • These experiences can disrupt a child’s development and have long-lasting effects. Impact of ACEs: • Toxic stress from ACEs can negatively affect brain and organ development. • Children facing prolonged adversity without adult support may develop stress response systems that are harmful. • ACEs increase the risk for: o Chronic health conditions (heart disease, cancer, lung disease, etc.) o Mental health issues (depression, anxiety, suicide attempts) o Risky behaviors (alcoholism, drug abuse, smoking, physical inactivity) o Early death. • The more ACEs a person experiences, the higher the likelihood of negative health outcomes later in life. Study Findings (Felitti et al., 1998): • Individuals who experienced four or more ACEs showed: o Higher health risks for addiction, mental health issues, and physical health problems. o More health risk factors in adulthood, such as obesity, smoking, and sedentary lifestyle. Groups at Higher Risk for ACEs: • Higher ACE exposure was found in: o Black, multiracial, lesbian/gay/bisexual individuals. o Those with less than a high school education, low income, and unemployed. • 25% of people in a study (2011-2014) experienced three or more ACEs. • Targeted support for at-risk groups can help mitigate the negative effects of ACEs. Parental Separation at the U.S. Border: • Thousands of children were separated from their parents starting in April 2018 as part of U.S. immigration policies. • Separation from parents during stressful situations, especially when escaping home, can be extremely harmful. • Consequences for children: o Increased risk for anxiety, depression, PTSD, obesity, lower IQ, and immune system problems. o Attachment issues, poorer selfesteem, and ongoing psychological and physical health difficulties. o Long-term effects include mental health problems, social difficulties, and increased mortality risk. The American Psychological Association opposes such policies due to the negative outcomes on children. 16 | H i k a m a c c h i