Chapter 8: Middle Adulthood

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Sensory abilities (like vision, hearing) often decline during middle adulthood. Health Concerns: o Health risks increase with poor lifestyle choices, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, lack of exercise, and poor diet. o Chronic conditions like diabetes and arthritis can affect overall health. Climacteric: o For females: The period of menopause marks the end of reproductive years, typically occurring between ages 45-55. o For males: The climacteric in men involves changes in fertility, testosterone levels, and may also affect sexual functioning, though it is less abrupt than for females. Sexuality: o Sexual activity may continue, but changes like reduced libido or physical discomfort may occur. o It's important to maintain communication and a healthy lifestyle for continued sexual health. Sleep: o Quality sleep is crucial for health. o Sleep deprivation can lead to problems like fatigue, poor concentration, and increased risk of health issues. Exercise and Nutrition: o Regular exercise and proper nutrition are essential for optimal health in middle adulthood. o These habits can help maintain energy, reduce stress, and prevent many agerelated health problems. Brain Functioning: o Cognitive abilities may start to show slight declines, but brain function can be maintained with mental stimulation and healthy lifestyle choices. While some changes are inevitable, many can be managed or prevented through healthy lifestyle choices like exercise, good nutrition, and stress management. Primary aging is natural, while secondary aging can often be avoided with proper care. o Coverage: • Middle Adulthood • Physical Changes • Sensory Changes • Health Concerns • Digestive Issues • Sleep • Exercise, Nutrition, and Weight • Climacteric • The Climacteric and Sexuality • Brain Functioning • Crystalized versus Fluid Intelligence • Middle Adults Returning to Education • Gaining Expertise: The Novice and the Expert • Work at Midlife • Leisure • Midlife Crisis? • Stress • Erikson: Generativity vs Stagnation • Midlife Relationships • Middle Adult Lifestyles • Grandparents • Friendships • Women in Midlife • Religion and Spirituality • • • • • Middle Adulthood Middle Adulthood (Midlife): • Typically defined as ages 40-45 to 60-65. • A period of both developmental gains and losses. • Research on this stage is still emerging, and individual experiences vary widely. Physical Development: • Two types of aging: o Primary Aging: Natural, biological changes that happen with age (e.g., molecular and cellular changes, oxidative damage). o Secondary Aging: Age-related changes influenced by controllable factors like lifestyle choices (e.g., poor diet, lack of exercise, smoking, stress). • Sensory Changes: • • • Physical Changes Hair Changes: 1|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • • Hair color changes as we age due to a decrease in melanin production in hair follicles, leading to gray or white hair. • Genetics determine when graying starts, typically around the 30s. • Hair loss: As people age, hair follicles stop producing new hairs, and hair growth slows. Men may experience male-pattern baldness (receding hairline, thinning at the top), while women may develop female-pattern baldness (less dense hair, visible scalp). • Sudden hair loss may signal an underlying health issue. Skin Changes: • Skin becomes drier, thinner, and prone to wrinkles, particularly on the face, as the underlying fat and muscle tone decrease. • Sun exposure and smoking accelerate wrinkle formation and skin damage. • Dark spots and blotchy skin develop due to sun exposure. • Blood vessels become more visible as the skin thins with age. Sarcopenia (Loss of Muscle Mass): • Sarcopenia refers to the gradual loss of muscle mass and strength with aging. • It typically starts around age 40 and contributes to frailty and functional impairment. • Causes: Decline in hormones (e.g., testosterone) and decreased physical activity. • Sarcopenia impacts quality of life, increases healthcare costs, and may lead to earlier death in older adults. • Exercise can help maintain muscle strength, but it does not fully reverse age-related muscle loss. Lung Changes: o Bone thinning and weakening of diaphragm muscles can reduce lung capacity and cause a decline in oxygen levels. o In healthy, non-smokers, these changes may have minimal impact, but they can be more significant in those with chronic lung conditions (e.g., bronchitis, asthma, or smokers). o Shortness of breath and fatigue may occur as a result of these age-related changes. Hair, skin, muscle, and lung changes are common as we age, but can be influenced by genetics, lifestyle, and health choices. Adopting healthy habits like exercise, skin protection, and avoiding smoking can help minimize some of these age-related physical changes. Sensory Changes • • Vision Changes: • Presbyopia: Age-related difficulty focusing on close objects due to the loss of elasticity in the eye's lens. This typically affects people over 35. o Signs: Difficulty reading small print, needing to hold reading material farther away, headaches, and eyestrain. • Floaters: Small spots or cobwebs that float in the field of vision. These are usually harmless but may indicate serious eye issues if they suddenly appear or darken. o Common in those with myopia (nearsightedness), diabetes, or those who’ve had cataract surgery. • Scotopic Sensitivity: Reduced ability to see in dim light as we age. By age 60, the retina receives only 1/3 the amount of light it did at age 20, making night vision more challenging. • Dry Eye Syndrome: Occurs when the eyes do not produce enough tears or the tears evaporate too quickly, causing discomfort. More common in people over 50, especially women after menopause. Hearing Changes: o Hearing problems increase during middle adulthood. ▪ Hearing issues double between ages 40 and 55, and triple by age 64. ▪ Common Signs: Difficulty understanding speech, especially in noisy environments. ▪ Higher Frequency Loss: Adults lose the ability to hear higher frequencies as they age, more commonly affecting men. o Risk Factors: ▪ Men are more likely to experience hearing loss and may not acknowledge it. ▪ Exposure to noise, smoking, high blood pressure, diabetes, and stroke can all worsen hearing loss. ▪ Prevention: Protecting ears from loud environments can help avoid further hearing deterioration. Vision changes like presbyopia, floaters, and night vision issues are normal with aging, but lifestyle factors like sun exposure and smoking can accelerate these changes. Hearing loss becomes more common in middle adulthood, especially due to environmental noise exposure. Protective measures can help preserve hearing. 2|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Health Concerns Heart Disease: • Leading cause of death in the U.S. and worldwide (23% of U.S. deaths in 2017). • Includes heart defects, heart rhythm issues, and narrowed/blockage of blood vessels (cardiovascular disease). • Common cause: Atherosclerosis (plaque buildup in arteries). • Symptoms vary by gender: Men more likely to experience chest pain; women experience fatigue, shortness of breath, and nausea. • Risk factors: Advanced age, family history, smoking, poor diet, alcohol, stress, and poor hygiene. Hypertension (High Blood Pressure): • Affects 1 in 3 American adults (70 million people), with many not controlling it. • Causes strain on the heart and risk for heart attack, stroke, and kidney damage. • "Silent killer" as it often has no symptoms. • Risk factors: Family history, high sodium diet, inactivity, obesity, alcohol, tobacco. Cancer: • Second leading cause of death in the U.S. (21.3% of all deaths in 2017). • Involves uncontrolled cell division, forming tumors, and can metastasize (spread to other areas). • Risk factors: Genetic, environmental factors, and lifestyle choices (e.g., smoking, poor diet). • Common cancers: Breast, lung, prostate, colon. Cholesterol: • Two types: LDL ("bad" cholesterol) and HDL ("good" cholesterol). • High LDL levels can lead to plaque buildup, increasing heart disease risk. • Risk factors for high cholesterol: Poor diet, inactivity, obesity, and family history. • Recommended cholesterol levels: Total cholesterol <200mg/dl, LDL <100mg/dl, HDL ≥40mg/dl, Triglycerides <150mg/dl. Diabetes (Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus): • Affects glucose control in the blood due to insufficient or ineffective insulin. • Affects 30.2 million people in the U.S. • Risk factors: Obesity, physical inactivity, age over 45, family history, poor diet. • Complications: Heart disease, kidney failure, blindness, limb amputation, nerve damage. Metabolic Syndrome: • A cluster of risk factors that increases the likelihood of heart disease and diabetes. Includes high blood pressure, high glucose levels, elevated LDL, and excess abdominal fat. • Risk factors: Obesity, inactivity, poor diet. • Treatment: Exercise, weight loss, and improving diet. Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): • Inflammatory disease affecting joints, causing pain, stiffness, and swelling. • Symmetrical joint inflammation (both sides of the body affected). • More common in women, with a genetic component. • Treatments: Pain relievers, medications to slow joint damage, balance of rest and exercise. Fatty Liver Disease: • Accumulation of fat in the liver (affects 33% of U.S. adults). • Caused by obesity and lack of physical activity. • Mild to moderate cases can be reversed through lifestyle changes (healthy diet and exercise). • Heart disease and cancer are top health concerns; lifestyle changes can help prevent these. • Managing hypertension and cholesterol levels is critical to prevent cardiovascular problems. • Diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and fatty liver disease can be controlled with diet, exercise, and weight management. • Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease that can be managed with proper care. • Digestive Issues Heartburn (Acid Indigestion or Pyrosis): • Common digestive issue caused by stomach acid backing up into the esophagus. • Can lead to discomfort and injury to the esophagus if prolonged. • GERD (Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease): Frequent heartburn due to relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter. • Prevalence: 60 million Americans experience it monthly, 15 million daily. • Complications: If untreated, can cause severe problems like esophageal cancer. • Causes: o Eating fatty/spicy foods, caffeine, smoking, eating before bed. • Treatment: Lifestyle changes, medication, and in severe cases, surgery. Gallstones: • Hard particles (fat, bile pigments, calcium) that form in the gallbladder. 3|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • • • • • • • • Size: Varies from small (grain of sand) to large (golf ball). Symptoms: Many do not cause symptoms. When symptoms occur, it includes upper abdominal pain if stones block bile/pancreatic ducts. Treatment: May require surgery or medical intervention if ducts are blocked. Prevalence: Affects 20% of women and 10% of men over 55. Risk Factors: o Family history, high-calorie/refined-carb diets, diabetes, obesity, metabolic syndrome, Crohn’s disease. Impact of Obesity: Increases cholesterol in bile, raising the risk of gallstones. Heartburn can lead to GERD, which is more serious if not managed. Gallstones are common, especially in older adults, and may require surgery if symptomatic. Lifestyle factors like diet and obesity significantly influence these conditions. Sleep Recommended Sleep Duration: • Adults need at least 7 hours of sleep per night to avoid health risks from chronic sleep deprivation (American Academy of Sleep Medicine, 2015). • Sleeping less than 6 hours or more than 10 hours is not recommended for adults. • Sleep statistics: o In 2013, only 59% of U.S. adults met the recommended 7-9 hours of sleep. o In 1942, 84% of U.S. adults met this sleep standard. o 43% of Americans in 2013 felt they would feel better with more sleep. Sleep Problems: • 9% of Americans report being diagnosed with a sleep disorder. • Common sleep disorders: o Sleep apnea: 71% of diagnosed sleep disorder patients. o Insomnia: 24% suffer from it. • Pain and Sleep: o Chronic pain: average of 42 minutes of sleep debt. o Acute pain: average of 14 minutes of sleep debt. • Stress and Health: o Stress, poor health, and anxiety worsen sleep quality. Midlife: Lower life satisfaction leads to delayed sleep onset due to anxiety and worry. o Menopause: Affects sleep quality and duration in women. Impact of Children at Home: • Having children at home reduces sleep duration. • Having a partner: Improves sleep for both men and women. Negative Consequences of Insufficient Sleep: • Physical: Weakens the immune system, increases obesity risk, raises blood pressure, and contributes to hypertension. • Cognitive: Memory impairment. • Emotional: Increased stress, as cortisol (stress hormone) remains elevated. • Health Risks: Linked to a higher risk of colon cancer, breast cancer, heart disease, and type 2 diabetes. • Longevity: Better sleep patterns are associated with longer life. • Growth Hormone: Deep sleep promotes growth hormone release, which supports cell division, energy production, and fat breakdown. Lack of deep sleep leads to physical decline in aging. Sleep Disturbances and Metabolic Health: • Irregular Sleep: Irregular bedtimes are linked to insulin resistance, a key indicator of diabetes risk, especially in midlife women. • Disrupted Circadian Rhythms: Inconsistent sleep schedules affect glucose metabolism and energy balance, contributing to health risks. • Sleep is essential for physical, cognitive, and emotional health. • Chronic sleep deprivation increases the risk of serious health problems. • Irregular sleep and poor sleep quality are linked to metabolic health issues like diabetes. • Stress, anxiety, and life satisfaction influence sleep quality, particularly in midlife. o Exercise, Nutrition, and Weight Exercise and Its Impact: • Exercise helps combat aging by building muscle, increasing metabolism, controlling blood sugar, improving bone density, and reducing stress. • Exercise guidelines (Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2008): o 150 minutes per week of moderateintensity exercise OR 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity exercise. 4|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o Strength training: Engage in musclestrengthening activities at least two days per week. o Even light activity is beneficial if one is inactive. • Challenges: Many midlife adults stop exercising due to weight gain or lack of motivation. A regular, enjoyable program, like walking or weight training, is most effective. • Exercise is a preventive health care measure and can reduce healthcare costs, especially for baby boomers (Shure & Cahan, 1998). Nutritional Concerns: • Caloric Needs: As people age, they require fewer calories. Refer to the caloric needs chart based on age, sex, and activity level (Table 8.7). • Excessive Sodium: o Recommended intake: Less than 2,300mg per day (about 1 teaspoon). o Americans average 3,440mg per day, which can raise blood pressure. o For high blood pressure: Reduce sodium intake to 1,500mg. • Excessive Fat: o Recommended intake: Less than 10% of total calories from saturated fats. o The average American diet consists of 34.3% fat, with 15% from saturated fats, linked to heart disease and weight gain. • Excessive Sugar: o Recommended intake: Less than 10% of total calories from added sugars. o The average adult consumes 15% of calories from added sugars, contributing to weight gain, diabetes, and other health issues. Metabolism and Weight Gain: • Metabolism slows with age: Less muscle means fewer calories are burned at rest, leading to weight gain, especially around the abdomen. • “Middle-aged spread”: Men gain fat on their upper abdomen and back; women gain fat on their waist and upper arms. • To compensate, midlife adults need to increase exercise and monitor nutrition. Obesity: • Obesity rates among adults aged 40-59 are 42.8%, the highest of any age group (CDC, 2017). • Health risks: Obesity is linked to diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, and is now associated with Alzheimer’s disease. • • • • A study found that higher BMI in midlife is linked to earlier onset of Alzheimer's, possibly due to inflammation caused by fat cells. Lifestyle choices significantly impact health in midlife. Taking preventative measures, like regular exercise, proper nutrition, sleep, and mental activity, can improve physical well-being. Midlife adults who engage in physical activity, monitor their nutrition, and maintain a healthy weight are more likely to enjoy good health into older adulthood. Climacteric Female Sexual and Reproductive Health: • Perimenopause & Menopause: o Perimenopause: A transition phase where a woman’s ovaries stop releasing eggs and hormone levels decrease. It can begin in the 40s and last 2-8 years before menopause. o Menopause: Defined as 12 consecutive months without menstruation, typically around age 51. o Symptoms are caused by reduced estrogen and progesterone, leading to: ▪ Sleep disturbances (e.g., insomnia, hot flashes). ▪ Vaginal changes: Reduced lubrication and elasticity can cause discomfort during intercourse. ▪ Osteoporosis: Decreased estrogen can lead to bone mass loss. ▪ Mood changes: Depression, irritability, and weight gain are common, but not directly caused by menopause. ▪ Weight gain is often due to increased abdominal fat and loss of lean body mass. • Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT): o Estrogen replacement was once common for symptom relief but is now less frequently used due to risks (e.g., breast cancer, stroke, blood clots). o Alternative symptom relief includes avoiding caffeine and alcohol, eating soy, staying sexually active, relaxation techniques, and waterbased lubricants. • Menopause and Ethnicity: o Menopausal symptoms vary across ethnic groups and cultures: 5|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT White women: More likely to report mental health symptoms (e.g., depression, irritability). ▪ African American women: Experience more physical symptoms, like night sweats. ▪ Chinese and Japanese American women: Report fewer symptoms overall. o Cultural perspectives on menopause: ▪ In some cultures, menopause is viewed positively (e.g., Indian women see it as a time of gaining status and freedom). ▪ In others, menopause is seen as a loss (e.g., Western perspectives may focus on physical attractiveness and youth). Male Sexual and Reproductive Health: • Erectile Dysfunction (ED): o ED is the inability to achieve or maintain an erection, affecting up to 50% of men aged 40-70. o ED causes include: ▪ Medical conditions: Diabetes, kidney disease, atherosclerosis (plaque buildup in arteries). ▪ Psychological factors: Stress, anxiety, and depression. o ED is treatable and not inevitable with age. • Prostate Enlargement & Low Testosterone: o Prostate enlargement can affect urination in middle-aged men. o Testosterone levels decline with age, especially after 50. Low testosterone may cause: ▪ Symptoms: Low sex drive, ED, fatigue, muscle loss, body hair reduction, and breast enlargement. ▪ Associated conditions: Diabetes, obesity, and high blood pressure. o Andropause refers to late-onset testosterone deficiency, but not all men with low testosterone have symptoms. o Testosterone replacement therapy is controversial, as long-term use can increase the risk of prostate cancer, blood clots, heart attacks, and strokes. ▪ • • • • Both men and women experience sexual and reproductive health changes during middle adulthood, influenced by hormonal shifts. Women may experience menopausal symptoms, which vary by ethnicity and culture. Men may experience erectile dysfunction, prostate issues, and testosterone decline, but these conditions are treatable and not inevitable with aging. Lifestyle changes and non-hormonal treatments can help manage these changes. The Climacteric and Sexuality Sexual Activity in Middle Adulthood: • Sexuality remains an important aspect of life for many older adults. • Statistics (National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior, 2010): o 74% of men and 70% of women aged 40-49 engaged in vaginal intercourse the previous year. o 58% of men and 51% of women aged 50-59 were sexually active. Age-Related Physical Changes Affecting Sexual Function: • Women: o Decreased sexual desire and pain during vaginal intercourse due to menopausal changes. o Reduced vaginal lubrication during arousal, which can impact sexual pleasure. • Men: o May require more direct stimulation for an erection, and erections may be delayed or less firm. o Conditions like erectile dysfunction or chronic diseases (e.g., diabetes, heart disease) can impact sexual function. Alternative Sexual Expressions: • Couples can continue enjoying physical intimacy through more foreplay, oral sex, and other forms of sexual expression. • The focus may shift from vaginal intercourse to other sexual activities. Risk of Pregnancy and STIs: • Pregnancy risk remains until a woman has been without menstruation for 12 months. • Couples should continue using contraception until menopause is confirmed. • Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) remain a risk for people over 40: 6|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT HIV: In 2014, 16.7% of new HIV diagnoses were among people aged 50+. o Other STIs, such as genital herpes, chlamydia, and genital warts, continue to pose risks. Safe Sex and Condom Use: • Adults over 40 have the lowest rates of condom use, which increases the risk of STIs. • There is a need for better education about STI prevention for older adults. Understanding Sexual Changes: • Partners should understand how aging affects sexual expression and avoid misinterpreting changes as a lack of sexual interest. • A better understanding will help maintain satisfying and safe sexual relationships as people age. • Sexuality remains important in middle adulthood, and age-related physical changes can affect sexual function. • Communication and understanding between partners are essential for maintaining a satisfying sexual relationship. • Safe sex practices should continue, as the risk of pregnancy and STIs remains relevant even in older age. o Brain Functioning Cognitive Abilities in Midlife: • The brain in midlife retains many abilities of youth while also gaining new ones. • Some individuals actually show improved cognitive functioning during middle age (Phillips, 2011). Brain Plasticity: • The brain remains plastic, meaning it can rewire itself based on experiences, even in middle age. • Older adults use more brain regions than younger adults when performing tasks. • Those who perform best on cognitive tasks are more likely to show bilateralization (using both hemispheres of the brain). White Matter in the Brain: • White matter, which helps form connections between neurons, increases into the 50s before beginning to decline. Emotional Regulation: • Emotionally, the brain becomes calmer and less neurotic in middle age. • Middle-aged adults are better at managing emotions and negotiating social situations. Older adults tend to focus more on positive information and less on negative information, and they remember positive images better. • The amygdala (the emotional center of the brain) becomes less responsive to negative stimuli in middle age. Financial and Decision-Making Abilities: • Adults in middle adulthood tend to make better financial decisions. • Cognitive abilities related to financial decisionmaking tend to peak around age 53. • Economic understanding improves with age. Cognitive Variability: • There is greater variability in cognitive abilities in middle age compared to younger or older adults. • Those who experience cognitive improvements in midlife tend to be more physically, cognitively, and socially active. • The brain remains adaptable in middle age and can even improve in some areas. • Middle-aged adults are emotionally better regulated, more focused on positive stimuli, and make better decisions, especially financially. • Active lifestyles (physically, cognitively, and socially) are linked to better cognitive performance in midlife. • Crystalized vs. Fluid Intelligence Fluid Intelligence: • Refers to the ability to learn new ways of solving problems and perform tasks quickly and abstractly. • Tends to decrease with age. Crystallized Intelligence: • Refers to the accumulated knowledge we acquire over time, such as facts, vocabulary, and general knowledge. • Increases with age. Differences: • Crystallized intelligence: o Increases with age and is reflected in knowledge such as semantic knowledge, vocabulary, and language. o Older adults often perform better on knowledge-based tasks (history, geography, crossword puzzles) because of accumulated knowledge. • Fluid intelligence: o Peaks in younger adulthood and tends to decline with age. o Older adults may take more time to process information but can 7|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT compensate with experience and a more complete processing style. Wisdom in Older Adults: • Older adults have an advantage in terms of "wisdom", which is based on accumulated knowledge and experience rather than the fast processing associated with fluid intelligence. Seattle Longitudinal Study: • Demonstrates that middle-aged adults perform better on certain cognitive tasks (e.g., verbal memory, spatial skills, vocabulary) than they did in their youth. • Performance peaks in these areas until the 70s, though perceptual speed and numerical computation tend to decline. Examples of Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence: • Chess: A young player might think faster, but an experienced player relies more on crystallized knowledge of the game. Performance in Professionals (Pilots): • Research on older pilots shows declines in processing speed and memory, but their overall performance remains strong due to their experience. Flow: • Flow refers to a mental state where a person is fully immersed in an activity, focused, and enjoying it. • It's often linked to creativity and is essential for intellectual satisfaction and achievement. • Middle-aged adults are more likely to experience flow, especially with creative tasks. Tacit Knowledge: • Tacit knowledge refers to practical, experience-based knowledge that is not taught explicitly. • This type of knowledge grows with age and is especially important in fields requiring handson skills, such as carpentry, cooking, and hairstyling. • It's considered "know-how" or professional instinct that cannot be easily codified or written down. • Crystallized intelligence increases with age, while fluid intelligence tends to decrease. • Older adults often use their accumulated knowledge to outperform younger adults in certain tasks. • Experience and practical knowledge, like tacit knowledge, are key advantages in middle adulthood. • Flow is a mental state linked to creativity and satisfaction, and it's well-developed in midlife. Middle Adults Returning to Education Rising Enrollment of Older Adults: • The number of adults over age 35 enrolling in college is growing, especially part-time or evening students. • In 2009, adults over 35 accounted for 17% of college and graduate students, and this is expected to rise to 19% by 2020. Reasons for Returning to Education: • Older adults may return to school to launch a second career, shift career paths, or develop new skills. • Many enroll to pursue personal interests that were previously neglected or to sharpen particular skills. Different Approach to Learning: • Middle-aged students tend to approach learning differently from younger students. • Cognitive Changes: While cognitive functions like working memory and processing speed decline with age, these can be compensated for by higher-order cognitive skills such as: o Forming strategies to enhance memory. o Summarizing and comparing ideas, rather than relying on rote memorization. Learning Preferences of Older Adults: • Older learners are more likely to ask, "Why is this important?" when learning new material. • They are more focused on relevance and meaning and prefer material that is practical or connected to their goals. • Older adults are typically task-oriented and prefer problem-solving over passive learning. Research Findings: • A study found that older students (17-70 years) were more independent, inquisitive, and intrinsically motivated compared to younger students. • Older women showed deeper learning processing and greater satisfaction with their education. Plus 50 Initiative: • To support adults over 50, the Plus 50 Initiative by the American Association of Community Colleges helps community colleges create programs for workforce training and new careers. • Since 2008, over 37,000 students have benefited from training programs in areas like early childhood education, nursing assistance, substance abuse counseling, and human resources. 8|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Retirement Trends: • 80% of adults over 50 plan to retire later or continue working in a new field during retirement. • The trend of older adults returning to education is rising, driven by a desire for new skills, second careers, or pursuing long-held interests. • Middle-aged students may take longer to learn but retain information better and approach learning with more meaning and relevance. • Older adults tend to be more independent and motivated learners compared to younger adults. • Programs like the Plus 50 Initiative are supporting workforce training for adults over 50, helping them transition into new careers as they approach retirement age. Gaining Expertise: Novice vs. Expert Expertise: • Expertise refers to specialized skills and knowledge gained through experience in a specific area. • Experts are more intuitive, automatic, strategic, and flexible compared to novices. Differences Between Novices and Experts: • Intuitive: o Novices follow strict steps or rules when solving problems (e.g., following a recipe exactly). o Experts rely on their vast knowledge and experience, making decisions that feel more instinctive (e.g., a chef might glance at a recipe and then improvise based on their experience). • Automatic: o Experts perform complex actions or tasks routinely and instinctively. Over time, expertise allows for faster and more effective processing of information. • Strategic: o Experts develop better strategies. For instance, skilled doctors are quicker at diagnosing by generating better hypotheses and focusing on the most likely problem, while novices may be distracted by less important symptoms. • Flexible: o Experts are more creative and enjoy challenges. They actively seek opportunities to experiment with new ideas or procedures, as they continuously grow through more difficult tasks. Developing Expertise: • Gaining expertise takes time and comes from experience and practice. • Middle-aged adults often have significant experience, making them more adept at solving problems because they have likely encountered similar situations before. This allows them to focus on key aspects of the issue and disregard irrelevant details. Expertise and Aging: • While expertise helps many people reach the top of their careers in middle adulthood, it doesn't fully compensate for cognitive decline with age. • Research shows that older adults perform better than younger novices in certain tasks, but this advantage is often task-specific. • As we age, we need to be more deliberate in maintaining our expertise, as the returns from practice diminish with age. This means that extra practice may not yield the same improvements for older adults as it would for younger individuals. • Expertise involves being intuitive, automatic, strategic, and flexible in a field of knowledge. • Middle-aged adults often leverage their accumulated experience and knowledge to solve problems more effectively. • While experience helps older adults excel in certain areas, maintaining expertise may require more conscious effort as we age. Work at Midlife Workforce Trends • Declining Workforce Participation: o The percentage of U.S. adults employed has steadily declined since the late 1990s. In 1999, 67% of the civilian workforce was employed, but by 2019 it was only 62.9%. o As the population ages, older adults (55 and older) are expected to make up a larger portion of the workforce, while younger workers (16-24) will shrink in numbers. • Changes in Employment by Age: o The baby boomer generation (now aged 55 and up) is moving out of the workforce, causing a steady decline in participation. o For older workers, especially women aged 55+, employment rates have 9|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT remained relatively stable, even increasing slightly. Workplace Climate for Middle-Aged Adults • Job Satisfaction: o Job satisfaction tends to peak in middle adulthood, often due to higher wages, more influence in decisionmaking, and greater experience in doing the job well. o Middle-aged workers tend to lower their expectations and goals, leading to increased job satisfaction, lower absenteeism, greater productivity, and less job-hopping compared to younger adults. • Challenges in the Workplace: o Glass Ceiling: Women may face barriers to career advancement, leading to higher turnover rates in large corporations. o Burnout: Older workers may also experience job burnout, which includes: ▪ Energy depletion or exhaustion ▪ Mental distance from the job, or job cynicism ▪ Reduced professional effectiveness Workplace Challenges for Middle-Aged Adults • Economic Recession: o Middle-aged adults have been hit hard by economic downturns (e.g., 2001 and 2008), facing issues such as fewer hours, pay cuts, job instability, and delayed retirement savings. o Middle-aged adults (ages 50-64) reported greater financial losses during recessions compared to other age groups. • Longer Unemployment: o Middle-aged adults who become unemployed are likely to remain unemployed longer than younger workers. Employers may prefer younger workers due to lower starting salaries and longer work-life expectancy. • Global Competition and Technological Changes: o Middle-aged workers face competition from global job markets and the rapid pace of technological change. o Younger workers may be more adaptable to these changes and willing to relocate for work, which can be easier for those with fewer family obligations. • • • • The U.S. workforce is aging, with older workers (55+) becoming a larger portion of the employed population. Job satisfaction peaks in middle adulthood, largely due to experience, stable wages, and more job autonomy. Burnout and the glass ceiling are challenges for middle-aged workers, particularly women. Middle-aged adults face greater challenges in times of economic recession, including longer periods of unemployment and difficulty adapting to technological shifts. Leisure Leisure Time Trends • Common Leisure Activity: o Watching television is the most common leisure activity for middleaged adults worldwide. o On average, middle-aged adults spend 2-3 hours per day watching TV, which accounts for more than half of their leisure time. • Leisure Time in the U.S.: o U.S. men tend to spend about 5 more hours per week on leisure activities than women. o Parents (especially those aged 35-44) typically have less leisure time due to work and family responsibilities. o Middle-aged adults spend the least amount of time on leisure activities compared to other age groups. Leisure Time in Comparison to Other Countries • U.S. vs Other Developed Nations: o Americans have less leisure time than people in many other developed nations. o Unlike other countries, the U.S. does not have laws guaranteeing paid vacation time across all job sectors, resulting in fewer people using their allotted time off. • Paid Vacation and Holiday Leave: o Higher-paying jobs and unionized positions are more likely to offer paid vacation. o 55% of U.S. workers did not take all of their paid vacation and holiday leave in 2015, losing a total of 658 million vacation days. Why U.S. Workers Don't Take Time Off • Common Reasons for Not Taking Leave: o Worries about unfinished work (40%). 10 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Concern that no one else can handle the job (35%). o Financial reasons for not taking a vacation (33%). o Feeling that career advancement makes it harder to take time off (33%). o Fear of being seen as replaceable (22%). • Workplace Culture: o Lack of support from employers and colleagues discourages employees from taking time off. o 80% of workers say they would take vacation if they felt supported by their boss. Benefits of Taking Time Off • Physical and Mental Health: o Taking time off reduces job stress and prevents burnout. o It improves mental health and physical health, especially if the leisure time includes moderate physical activity. • Work Productivity and Satisfaction: o Taking breaks improves job productivity, job satisfaction, and helps employees balance work and family obligations. • Watching TV is the most common leisure activity for middle-aged adults. • U.S. workers generally have less leisure time than those in other developed nations and often do not take all of their paid time off. • Cultural pressures and workplace issues contribute to the underutilization of vacation days. • Taking time off has significant benefits, including reducing stress, improving health, and boosting work satisfaction. o Midlife Crisis? Perception of Age • Shift in Perception of Age: o In early adulthood, people often emphasize their youth to gain respect or be seen as experienced. o By middle age (40s), individuals tend to emphasize how young they are rather than focus on their age. o Life’s focus changes from looking ahead to the future to emphasizing the present. • Midlife Reflection: o People in middle adulthood start to think about their lives in terms of how many years are left rather than how many years they have lived (Neugarten, 1968). Midlife Crisis: Theory and Criticism • Levinson’s Theory (1978): o Daniel Levinson introduced the concept of a midlife crisis, based on his study of 40 men aged 35-45. o According to Levinson, during the midlife transition (ages 40-45), individuals reevaluate their lives, make significant changes, and feel a sense of urgency to fulfill unachieved dreams. o This crisis occurs because people begin to realize how much time has passed and feel impatience about not having done everything they wanted. • Criticism of Levinson’s Study: o Levinson’s study has been criticized for its small sample size, limited age range, and lack of diversity in participants (cohort effect). o Some research does not support the idea of an inevitable midlife crisis for most individuals. Alternative Views on Midlife Crisis • Vaillant’s Perspective (2012): o Vaillant, a researcher in the Harvard Study of Adult Development, believed a midlife crisis is rare and that longitudinal studies (tracking individuals over their entire lives) provide better insights. o He argued that Levinson’s conclusion about a midlife crisis was due to the cross-sectional design of the study, which only looked at individuals at one point in time. • MacArthur Foundation Study (2007): o A 10-year study of over 3,000 adults found that most people (77%) did not experience a midlife crisis. o Only 23% reported experiencing a crisis, and it was often triggered by a major life event, not a fear of aging. o Those who experienced a midlife crisis were typically highly educated. • Middle-aged adults often shift focus from future goals to the present. • The midlife crisis is not experienced by most people and is not an inevitable part of development. • Research suggests that the years between 40 and 60 are marked by a sense of well-being for most individuals. 11 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • A midlife crisis tends to be triggered by life events, not simply aging, and is rare overall. Stress What is Stress? • Stress is a physical and psychological response when an organism perceives a threatening event that disturbs its balance and challenges its ability to cope. • Origin of the term: Stress was first used in psychology by Hans Selye, who studied the effects of hormones on rats and noticed that stress resulted from the experience of being handled, not just the hormone itself. Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) • Three-phase model: 1. Alarm phase: Body mobilizes resources to deal with the stressor. 2. Resistance phase: Coping with the stressor over time. 3. Exhaustion phase: If stress is prolonged, the body depletes its resources and becomes unable to cope effectively. Types of Stress • Major Stressors: Life events like a family death or natural disasters. • Chronic Stress: Ongoing difficulties such as work stress, long-term health issues, or negative situations. • Daily Hassles: Smaller stressors like traffic or arguments, which can still cause physical effects like elevated blood pressure and immune suppression. Personality and Stress • Type A Personality: Traits like competitiveness, impatience, and hostility are linked to higher risk of heart disease. • Hostility and competitiveness increase stress and damage health, particularly heart health. Social Relationships and Stress • Social Isolation: Lack of social connections is as harmful to health as smoking, increasing risk for diseases and early death. • Social Support: Having friends and family to provide emotional, tangible, or advisory support can reduce stress and improve health. o Social Integration: Having multiple social roles (e.g., friend, family member, volunteer) can improve health. Caregiving and Stress • Caregiving Statistics: 40 million Americans provide unpaid caregiving, often for a parent or spouse with a long-term condition. Caregiver Stress: o Caregiving can lead to poor physical health, especially for those caring for children or spouses with disabilities. o Caregivers, especially mothers, report more chronic health issues, especially if the caregiving situation is stressful. o Older caregivers tend to experience less stress compared to younger ones, likely due to greater emotional stability with age. • Spousal Care: While caregiving for a spouse can be stressful, those who do not feel strain can experience better mental health than those who feel overwhelmed. o Gender Differences: Female caregivers report more strain and poorer health compared to male caregivers. Stress Management • Average Stress Levels: Adults aged 39-52 rated their stress at 5.3, while adults aged 53-71 rated it at 3.9. • Common Stressors: Money, work, political climate, and violence/crime are major sources of stress. • Stress Reduction Techniques: o Relaxation and Meditation: Breathing exercises, muscle relaxation, and mental imagery to reduce stress. o Biofeedback: Learning to control physiological responses like heart rate to manage stress. o Exercise: A natural way to reduce stress with additional health benefits. Coping Strategies • Problem-focused Coping: Actively addressing the stressor to solve the problem (e.g., studying more for an exam). • Emotion-focused Coping: Managing the emotions caused by stress (e.g., watching a funny movie to reduce anxiety). o Short-term vs. Long-term Effects: ▪ Emotion-focused coping may reduce stress temporarily, but problem-focused coping tends to have better long-term effects on mental health. ▪ For uncontrollable events (e.g., death of a loved one), emotionfocused coping might be the better initial strategy. • Stress affects both mental and physical health and can be triggered by both major life events and daily hassles. • 12 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • • Social support and good relationships play a critical role in managing stress and improving health. Caregiving for a family member can add stress, but the effects vary based on the relationship and the presence of support. Various stress management techniques (like exercise, meditation, and coping strategies) can help reduce stress and improve overall wellbeing. Erikson: Generativity vs Stagnation What is Generativity? • Generativity refers to the desire to create or produce something of value, including: o Procreativity: Having children and raising them. o Productivity: Creating new products or contributing to society through work. o Creativity: Developing new ideas or projects. o Self-generation: Developing further identity and personal growth. Ideas from Erikson • Stage of Generativity: This stage is focused on the middle adulthood period, where individuals typically: o Establish a family (parenthood) and career. o Strive to leave a positive legacy. o Engage in community involvement. • Erikson believed this is the longest stage in his developmental theory. • Conflict Between Work and Family: Midlife individuals may experience conflict between family responsibilities and career obligations, but overall, Erikson saw this time as positive for development. Stagnation • When an individual is not actively involved in generative tasks (e.g., work, family, community), they may experience stagnation— a sense of lack of purpose or unfulfilled potential. • Positive Aspect of Stagnation: This feeling can push individuals to redirect their energies toward more meaningful activities. Virtue of Care • The virtue emerging from generativity is “Care”. o Generative individuals are concerned with caring for: ▪ People (e.g., children, family) ▪ Products (e.g., work, projects) Ideas (e.g., creativity, community engagement) o Erikson believed that resolving earlier life challenges (identity and intimacy) prepares people for successful generativity. Research on Generativity • Positive Traits in Generative Adults: o High on Big 5 Personality Traits: ▪ Conscientiousness ▪ Extraversion ▪ Agreeableness ▪ Openness to Experience ▪ Low on Neuroticism o Generative adults are more likely to have healthy adaptation to the world and strong cultural knowledge. • Generativity in Women: o Women who scored high in generativity at age 52 reported higher satisfaction with marriage and motherhood, and had better successful aging at age 62. • Generativity in Men: o Men with high generativity at midlife exhibited: ▪ Better cognitive functioning (e.g., memory, attention, calculation). ▪ Stronger executive functioning (e.g., abstract thinking, cognitive flexibility). ▪ Lower levels of depression in late adulthood. Generativity in Late Adulthood • Withdrawal at the End of Generativity: As individuals enter late adulthood, they may withdraw from generative tasks (e.g., caregiving, work) because they are no longer expected to be active in these roles. • Risk of Stagnation: If an individual feels no longer needed or challenged, they may experience stagnation. • Final Stage (Integrity vs Despair): Erikson cautioned that partial withdrawal from generative tasks is healthy, but complete withdrawal can lead to stagnation. Continuing to engage in meaningful tasks during late adulthood is important for psychological wellbeing. • Generativity is about creating, contributing, and leaving a legacy, often through family, work, and community involvement. • Midlife is a period of productive growth focused on caring for others and contributing to society. ▪ 13 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • Stagnation occurs when an individual disengages from generative tasks, which can result in feelings of lack of purpose. Maintaining engagement in generative tasks in late adulthood is important to avoid stagnation and continue to live a fulfilling life. Midlife Relationships Sandwich Generation • The sandwich generation refers to adults who are: o Caring for aging parents (65 or older) and also raising or supporting their own children. • Statistics: o 47% of middle-aged adults are part of the sandwich generation (Pew Research, 2013). o 15% provide financial support to an older parent while also supporting their own children. o 48% supported their adult children in the past year. o 71% of sandwich-generation adults are between ages 40-59. o Hispanic adults are more likely to support both generations than White or Black adults. • Gender Roles: o Women are more likely to care for aging parents (e.g., providing personal care such as bathing or dressing). • Challenges: o Time Pressure: 33% of sandwichgeneration adults report feeling “always rushed.” o Financial Strain: ▪ Only 28% feel financially comfortable compared to 41% of non-sandwich adults. ▪ 33% are just getting by financially. Kinkeeping • Kinkeepers are people who maintain family connections, organize family events, and promote family solidarity. • Who are Kinkeepers? o Usually women, such as mothers and grandmothers. o They manage family gatherings, provide emotional support, and help maintain family traditions. • Challenges of Kinkeeping: Can cause stress if it interferes with other responsibilities. o On average, kinkeepers spend 34 hours a month maintaining family connections, which can lead to higher stress and depression. Empty Nest • The empty nest refers to the period when children leave home after growing up, typically during midlife. • Emotional Reactions: o Some parents feel a sense of role loss or loneliness after children leave. o Others experience role strain relief— relief from the responsibilities of raising children. o Role Loss Hypothesis: Losing the role of a parent may cause emotional distress, leading to empty nest syndrome. o Role Strain Relief Hypothesis: Many parents find the empty nest to be positive, as the responsibilities of childrearing are lifted. Martial satisfaction often increases during this period. • Cultural Differences: o In China, empty nesters in rural areas report greater loneliness and depression due to the loss of family income and support. o Urban Chinese empty-nesters show less distress than those in rural areas. Boomerang Kids • Boomerang kids are young adults who move back in with their parents after living independently. • Reasons for Returning: o Financial Struggles and emotional distress (e.g., mental health issues). o Young adults who return home often have stronger relationships with their parents, reducing stress. • Impact on Parents: o Parents of boomerang kids report less financial strain than those with children still living independently. o Many parents are more tolerant of this arrangement, as it has become more common. o Boomerang kids often contribute financially and help with household duties. Effects of Adult Children’s Personal Issues o 14 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • • • • • • Linked Lives: The life course perspective suggests that parents and children influence each other's development throughout life. Impact on Parents: o Parents of adult children facing personal problems (e.g., health issues, addiction, job problems) experience more stress and emotional difficulties. o Parents may feel negative emotions, lower self-acceptance, and have strained relationships with their children. o Single parents tend to report the worst emotional health in these situations. Midlife relationships often involve balancing the care of aging parents with supporting children, a phenomenon called the sandwich generation. Kinkeepers, usually women, play a central role in maintaining family connections and are often under stress. The empty nest period can bring mixed emotions: some parents feel a loss of identity, while others experience relief from parental duties. Boomerang kids are more common today, and while they may bring stress initially, they also contribute financially and help with household duties. Parents of adult children facing personal issues may experience greater stress and emotional strain. Middle Adult Lifestyles Singlehood: • Many adults aged 45-54 (16 per 1,000) and 55+ (7 per 1,000) have never married in the U.S. (Pew Research, 2014). • Some midlife singles may be divorced or widowed. • DePaulo (2014) challenges the idea that singles fare worse emotionally and in health than married people, suggesting that "always single" adults are no less happy than those married for a long time. Online Dating: • Survey by Montenegro (2003) found that 4069-year-olds most wanted companionship and sexual fulfillment from dating. • Middle-aged adults (40-69) had similar interests to younger adults in romantic and sexual activities, though the older age group (old-old) showed less interest. Marriage Trends: • 48% of adults aged 45-54 are married, either for the first time (22%) or remarried (26%). • Marital satisfaction often increases when children leave home, but not all agree that marriages improve with age. Divorce Trends: • 27% of adults aged 45-54 are divorced (57% of them are women). • Divorce rates among those 50+ have doubled since the 1990s. • Divorce reasons: For women – abuse, drug/alcohol problems, infidelity. For men – falling out of love, differing values/interests. • Divorce in midlife is less emotionally intense than in early adulthood but can be more financially stressful for women. Dating Post-Divorce: • Most divorced adults date within a year of filing for divorce. • Dating with children is challenging; courtships tend to be shorter and focused on home or child-related activities. • Many parents gatekeep their new relationships by gradually introducing their children to new partners. Remarriage: • Remarriage rates are declining but higher among those 55+ (67% for ages 55-64). • Men are more likely to remarry, although the gender gap is narrowing over time. • White adults are more likely to remarry than those from other racial/ethnic groups. Success of Remarriage: • Some remarriages are successful, especially when individuals engage in self-improvement after divorce. • Remarriages can face unique challenges like blending families and unclear family roles, leading to potential dissatisfaction and higher divorce rates. Children’s Influence on Remarriage: • Children in the home affect the likelihood of remarriage, particularly for mothers. • Two types of parents: o Child-focused: prioritizes child’s views in selecting a new partner. o Adult-focused: expects children to adapt to parental decisions. • Parents’ approach to blending families influences the success of repartnering. Grandparents Role of Grandparents: • Many people in middle adulthood become grandparents, adding a new family role. • Grandparent roles can differ significantly based on culture and geography. In Latin America, Asia, and Africa, grandparents often 15 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT play a larger, day-to-day role in their grandchildren's lives. In the U.S., this is becoming more common (Pew Research Center, 2010). Impact of Proximity: • The degree of involvement often depends on how close grandparents live to their grandchildren. • Grandparents in developed nations may live far from their grandchildren, but technology (like texting, email, or Skype) helps maintain connections, even across long distances (Sorenson & Cooper, 2010). Grandparent Styles: • Cherlin and Furstenberg (1986) identified three types of grandparents: o Remote Grandparents (30%): Rarely see their grandchildren, often living far away, and communicate mainly on special occasions. o Companionate Grandparents (55%): Spend time with grandchildren but do not interfere with parenting. They are more like friends to their grandchildren. o Involved Grandparents (15%): Actively participate in their grandchildren's lives, often with frequent contact and authority. These grandparents may even take on a caregiving role, and this is more common among grandmothers than grandfathers. Changing Roles Over Time: • Grandparents may change their involvement style based on family circumstances or the specific needs of each grandchild (Bengtson, 2001). • Increasingly, grandparents are stepping in to provide full-time care for grandchildren or supporting them in times of crisis. Grandfathers’ Roles: • Early research mainly focused on grandmothers, but grandfathers also value their relationships with grandchildren. • For many grandfathers, being a grandfather is seen as more enjoyable and less stressful than being a parent. They often feel more affectionate and flexible with grandchildren. • Some grandfathers appreciate the chance to engage in activities with grandchildren that their work or traditional views of fatherhood prevented them from doing with their own children (Sorenson & Cooper, 2010). Friendships • Having a confidante or close friend boosts a sense of belonging, security, and overall wellbeing (Dunér & Nordstrom, 2007). • Close friendships are linked to lower chances of mental health issues like depression and anxiety (Harrison et al., 1999). • Close friends also help reduce the negative effects of stress on health (Kouzis & Eaton, 1998). • Poor social connections in adulthood are associated with a higher risk of premature death, even more than smoking, obesity, or alcohol abuse (Holt-Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). Friendships and Wellbeing for Women: • Female friendships significantly contribute to life satisfaction and mental health (Borzumato-Gainey et al., 2009). • Women with strong support networks are generally more satisfied with life than those who are more isolated (Degges-White & Myers, 2006). • However, women often have difficulties maintaining friendships due to caretaking responsibilities at home (Borzumato-Gainey et al., 2009). Friendships and Wellbeing for Men: • For men in midlife, drinking alcohol with friends plays an important role in maintaining friendships (Emslie et al., 2013). • While alcohol can promote relaxation and social support, excessive drinking in male friendships may lead to unhealthy behaviors. Social Relationships from Early Adulthood: • Social relationships in early adulthood lay the foundation for later life, influencing intimacy and psychological health (Erikson, 1959). • A study showed that the quality of social relationships in young adulthood is more important than the quantity for mental wellbeing later in life (Carmichael et al., 2015). • Continuing to socialize widely in one's 30s might negatively impact the ability to form deep, intimate relationships later on. Internet Friendships: • The Internet has made it easier for people to form new friendships, especially for those who are shy or socially anxious (McKenna et al., 2002). • Virtual friendships can be as meaningful and intimate as in-person ones, with online communication empowering people who struggle with face-to-face interaction (Bargh et al., 2002; Benford, 2008). Workplace Friendships: • Many friendships are formed in the workplace due to the amount of time spent there, Importance of Close Friendships: 16 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • providing opportunities for mentoring and social support (Kaufman & Hotchkiss, 2003). Work friendships are linked to higher job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment (Riordan & Griffeth, 1995). Employees with close friends at work are almost 50% more satisfied with their jobs than those without (Gallup poll, 2007). Women in Midlife Double Standard of Aging: • In Western societies, aging is more stressful for women than for men due to societal emphasis on youthful beauty and attractiveness (Slevin, 2010). • The "double standard of aging" means that aging men are seen as "distinguished," while aging women are often seen as "old" (Teuscher & Teuscher, 2006). • Women are traditionally valued for their reproductive roles, so once they are postmenopausal, they may be viewed as "old." Men, however, are valued for achievements and power and are not seen as old until physically unable to work (Carroll, 2016). Emotional Impact on Women: • Women may experience more fear, anxiety, and concerns about their identity as they age. • There is pressure for women to prove themselves as valuable and productive members of society (Bromberger, Kravitz, & Chang, 2013). Cultural and Racial Differences: • Attitudes towards aging vary across different races, cultures, and sexual orientations: o In some cultures, such as among Asian communities, aging women gain greater social status and respect (Fung, 2013). o Black and Latina women tend to have fewer stereotypes about aging compared to white women (Schuler et al., 2008). o Lesbians generally have more positive attitudes toward aging and appearance compared to heterosexual women (Slevin, 2010). Role of Media: • Media plays a significant role in shaping how women perceive aging by promoting antiaging products and cosmetic surgeries to appear younger (Gilleard & Higgs, 2000). Religion and Spirituality Relationship Between Religion/Spirituality and Health: • Engaging in religious-related activities and spiritual practices is positively linked to optimal health (Grzywacz & Keyes, 2004). • Both religious involvement and spirituality contribute to psychological well-being and higher quality of life (Greenfield, Vaillant, & Marks, 2009; Vaillant, 2008). • Religiosity: Refers to formal participation in religious groups and their doctrines, values, and traditions. • Spirituality: Refers to a personal sense of connection to something transcendent, leading to feelings of awe, compassion, and gratitude. • Spirituality is linked to lower negative emotions and higher positive feelings, personal growth, and autonomy (Greenfield et al., 2009). Differences Between Religiosity and Spirituality: • Religiosity: Associated with higher purpose and personal growth, especially in older adults, but also linked to lower autonomy. • Spirituality: Generally more closely linked to positive mental health outcomes across all age groups, not dependent on religious participation. Age and Religion/Spirituality: • Older individuals tend to identify more with religion/spirituality than younger people (BeitHallahmi & Argyle, 1998). • Religion/spirituality helps older adults cope with age-related losses, offers social support, and reflects generational differences in socialization (Greenfield et al., 2009). Gender Differences in Religion/Spirituality: • In the U.S., women report higher levels of religious and spiritual identification than men (Pew Research Center, 2016): o 60% of women say religion is very important vs. 47% of men. o 64% of women pray daily vs. 47% of men. o 40% of women attend religious services weekly vs. 32% of men. • Women may benefit more from the social aspects of religion and spirituality, as social relationships have a stronger impact on their mental health (Greenfield et al., 2009). Global Gender Differences in Religion: • Worldwide, 83% of women identify with a religion, compared to 80% of men, with women making up 97 million more religious identifiers (Pew Research Center, 2016). • Christian Women: Higher rates of church attendance and daily prayer than men. 17 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • Muslim Women and Men: Similar levels of religiosity, except for differences in mosque attendance. Jewish Men vs. Women: Men attend synagogues more frequently, especially in Orthodox communities, where men's attendance is crucial for communal worship. 18 | H i k a m a c c h i