Chapter 5: Middle and Late Childhood

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Coverage: • Middle and Late Childhood • Physical Development • Sports • Childhood Obesity • Concrete Operational Thought • Information Processing • Language Development • Communication Disorders • Theories of Intelligence • Measuring Intelligence: Standardization and the Intelligence Quotient • Extremes of Intelligence: Intellectual Disability and Giftedness • Education • Cultural Differences in the Classroom • Children with Disabilities • Children with Disabilities: Legislation • Erikson: Industry vs. Inferiority • Self-Understanding • Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development • Friends and Peers • Bullying • Family Life Middle and Late Childhood (Ages 6-11) Physical Development: • Children gain better control over their body movements. • Mastery of gross motor skills (larger body movements like running, jumping) and fine motor skills (smaller movements like writing, drawing). Brain Development: • Brain changes during this time help with physical growth and better reasoning. • Greater flexibility of thought develops, improving problem-solving and cognitive skills. School & Learning: • School becomes a significant part of life, expanding children’s world beyond their family. Peer Relationships: Peer groups play a big role in a child’s life, influencing social development. • Peer acceptance becomes important for emotional growth and self-perception. Parent-Child Relationship: • Changes in relationships with parents as peers start to take priority. • The way children interact with their parents may shift as they seek more independence. Physical Development Overall Physical Growth: • Growth slows down during these years. • Typically, children gain 5-7 pounds and grow 2-3 inches per year. • They become leaner, gain muscle strength, and develop better lung capacity for physical activity. Growth Spurt: • The growth spurt begins earlier in females than in males: o Girls: Around age 9 o Boys: Around age 11 Motor Skills: • Gross Motor Skills (large muscle movements) improve (e.g., riding a bike). • Fine Motor Skills (small muscle movements) also improve (e.g., cutting nails). • Boys typically outperform girls in gross motor skills, while girls outperform boys in fine motor skills. Brain Development • Brain Growth Spurts: o Two main growth spurts occur: ▪ Ages 6-8: Improvements in fine motor skills and eye-hand coordination. ▪ Ages 10-12: Development of the frontal lobes, enhancing logic, planning, and memory. • Myelination: o Myelination is a key factor in brain development during this period. o From ages 6-12, the association areas of the brain (connecting sensory, motor, and intellectual functions) become almost fully myelinated. o This leads to faster information processing and quicker reaction times. • Memory and Learning: o The hippocampus (responsible for memory) becomes more myelinated, improving memory functioning. • Improved Cognitive Abilities: 1|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o o Children develop better abilities to plan and coordinate activities using both sides of the brain. They also gain better control over emotions and improve their attention span as the prefrontal cortex matures. Sports Introduction to Organized Sports: • Middle childhood is a great time to introduce children to organized sports, helping them develop social skills, athletic abilities, and a sense of competition. • Soccer is a popular sport, with nearly 3 million children playing in the U.S. Positive Effects of Sports: • Participation in sports is linked to: o Higher satisfaction with family life and overall quality of life. o Improved physical and emotional development. o Better academic performance. Concerns About Competition: • Overemphasis on competition and skill can lead to children losing interest and quitting sports. • Coaches are now advised to reduce drilling and allow children to play freely and choose positions to help them maintain their love for the game. Barriers to Sports Participation: • Factors like gender, poverty, location, ethnicity, and disability can limit children's opportunities to participate in sports. • Girls are more likely to have never participated in sports and may receive less support from fathers compared to boys. • Children in suburban areas have higher sports participation rates compared to those in rural or urban areas. • Caucasian children participate in sports more than minority children. Dropout Rates in Sports: • Fun is the number one reason why children quit organized sports. • About 1 in 3 children drop out of organized sports. • Proper coach training can lower dropout rates (from 30% to 5%). Esports: • Esports (competitive video gaming) is becoming more popular, with many children watching or participating in video game competitions. • 1 in 4 children between ages 5-16 consider playing computer games with friends a form of exercise. • There is a trend of fewer children participating in traditional sports, with some focusing on specialization in one sport, which increases injury risk. Physical Education: • Physical education (PE) in schools introduces children to sports. • After many years of cutbacks, there has been a return to more PE due to concerns about childhood obesity. • However, few states meet the recommended PE guidelines (e.g., Oregon and District of Columbia are exceptions). Childhood Obesity BMI and Obesity: • BMI (Body Mass Index) is used to measure if a child is overweight or obese: o 85th percentile or higher = overweight. o 95th percentile or higher = obese. • In 2015-2016: o 13.9% of 2-5 year-olds and 18.4% of 6-11 year-olds were obese. Health and Cognitive Risks: • Obesity in children is linked to: o Medical issues like high blood pressure, insulin resistance, and inflammation. o Cognitive problems like impaired executive functioning, working memory, mental flexibility, and decision-making. o Poor diet (high in saturated fats) can impair brain functioning, especially in memory tasks. o Lack of impulse control can make it harder for overweight children to avoid unhealthy foods. • Childhood obesity increases the risk of cognitive decline and future health problems like heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. Parental Recognition and Misperception: • Many parents do not recognize when their child is overweight or obese. This is known as "oblivobesity". • Studies found that: o 75% of parents with overweight children thought their child had a normal weight. o Parents of obese children were more likely to misperceive their child’s weight as normal. • As children's average weight increases, parents' perception of what is "normal" also rises. Children’s Misperception: 2|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • A large number of children, especially overweight ones, do not recognize that they are overweight: o 80% of overweight boys and 70% of overweight girls in the U.S. thought they had a normal weight. • Families with higher socioeconomic status were more aware of healthy weight standards. Social Impact: • Overweight children are often teased, ridiculed, or bullied, affecting their self-image and popularity. • They are at higher risk for orthopedic problems, like knee injuries, and future health issues like heart disease and stroke. Interventions and Support: • Behavioral interventions focusing on impulse control and inhibition can help children resist unhealthy food choices. • Parents should be supportive and avoid using shame or guilt. Helping children make healthy food choices and praising their efforts is beneficial. • Aerobic exercise has been shown to improve cognitive functioning in overweight children. • Emphasizing activity levels over dieting alone is key to avoid triggering eating disorders. APA Guidelines for Treatment: • In 2018, the American Psychological Association (APA) recommended familybased, multicomponent behavioral interventions to treat obesity. • The guidelines include: o Counseling on diet, physical activity, and parenting strategies (e.g., goalsetting, problem-solving). o 26 contact hours with the family for effectiveness. • Challenges like cost, location, and time commitment can make it hard for families to access these treatments. • APA suggests delivering interventions in primary care offices for easier access and recommends schools and communities to offer healthier meals and limit junk food. Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7-11): • Children in this stage use logic to solve problems involving the physical world (things they can see, touch, or experience directly). • They can understand cause and effect, size, and distance. Abilities in Concrete Operational Stage: • Classification: o Children can organize objects in different ways and understand categories and subcategories. • Identity: o Objects have qualities that don’t change, even if the object is altered (e.g., a broken piece of chalk is still chalk). • Reversibility: o Children understand that some things can return to their original state (e.g., water can freeze and thaw, but eggs can’t be unscrambled). o Arithmetic operations are reversible (e.g., 2 + 3 = 5, and 5 - 3 = 2). • Conservation: o Children understand that changing one quality (e.g., height) can be compensated by another (e.g., width), meaning the amount of something (like water) remains the same. • Decentration: o Children can focus on more than one dimension of an object at once (e.g., considering both height and width). • Seriation: o Children can arrange things in a specific order (like sorting sticks by length) in a methodical way. Limitations: • Abstract Thinking: o Concrete operational children still struggle with abstract thinking (ideas that can’t be physically seen or touched). • Scientific Thinking: o They don’t always think in systematic or scientific ways when experimenting or trying to find solutions (e.g., they may conduct biased experiments with no clear conclusions). Information Processing • Children’s memory abilities, attention, and memory strategies develop during middle and late childhood, influencing their school readiness and academic success. Working Memory: • Working memory improves as children get older, helping them process information faster and ignore distractions. • Brain changes, like better processing speed and filtering irrelevant information, support this growth. • Children with learning disabilities may struggle with working memory, making it harder to follow multi-step tasks. Strategies like breaking tasks into smaller steps can help. 3|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Attention: • Children become better at focusing on important information and switching between tasks. • Younger children may struggle to shift focus (e.g., sorting objects by one rule, then switching to another rule), while older children can make the switch more easily. • These improvements help children approach tasks more strategically. Memory Strategies: • Children develop strategies to remember information as they age, such as rehearsing, visualizing, and creating rhymes or acronyms (e.g., "ROYGBIV" for rainbow colors). • Strategies improve with age, but not all children use them effectively: o Mediation Deficiency: When a child doesn’t understand or use a strategy. o Production Deficiency: When a child knows a strategy but doesn’t use it on their own. o Utilization Deficiency: When a strategy is used but doesn't improve performance (common when learning a new strategy). Knowledge Base: • As children gain more experiences and knowledge, they develop better ways to store and recall information, making learning easier. Metacognition: • Children’s ability to understand their own thinking improves, helping them regulate how they study or solve problems. • Older children can better prioritize what’s important in tasks and adjust their strategies, leading to better learning. Critical Thinking: • Critical thinking teaches children how to analyze information, solve problems, and make informed decisions. • Skills like evaluating evidence, analyzing arguments, and judging the credibility of sources are essential for critical thinking. • Metacognition helps children reflect on their thinking and improve decision-making. Language Development Vocabulary Growth: • By fifth grade, children have a vocabulary of about 40,000 words, and it grows quickly. • Unlike early childhood, vocabulary growth in middle and late childhood is supported by connecting new words with words they already know and understanding word meanings more deeply. New Understanding of Words: • Older children can think of objects in less literal ways. • For example, when asked about "pizza," younger children may say "eat," while older children understand it's a type of "food." • Older children also enjoy telling jokes, especially those with wordplay or punchlines, unlike younger children who tell more literal or slapstick jokes. Grammar and Flexibility: • Older children are better at learning and using grammar rules. • They quickly adjust to new grammar rules, like switching from saying "I goed there" to "I went there," unlike younger children who might resist changes in how they speak. Communication Disorders • About 5% of children have a speech disorder by first grade. Fluency Disorders: • These affect how smoothly a child speaks. The most common fluency disorder is stuttering, where sounds, syllables, or words are repeated or extended. • About 5% of children ages 2-5 experience stuttering, which may last anywhere from weeks to years. • 75% of children recover from stuttering, while 25% may continue to stutter into adulthood. • Genetics and, in rare cases, brain injury or emotional trauma can cause stuttering. Articulation Disorders: • This is when a child has difficulty pronouncing speech sounds clearly. This can make their speech hard to understand. • Problems might include substituting, omitting, or changing sounds. • By age three, at least half of a child’s speech should be understandable by a stranger. • By age five, their speech should be mostly clear. • Accents are not considered articulation disorders, but persistent trouble speaking by age six may require professional help. Voice Disorders: • These involve issues with the pitch, loudness, and quality of a child’s voice. • A voice disorder becomes a problem if it makes the child’s speech difficult to understand. • Voice disorders are more common in boys than in girls and affect 1.4% to 6% of children. 4|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Causes may include structural problems with the vocal cords or vocal fatigue from overuse, and in rare cases, stress or anxiety can also contribute. Theories of Intelligence • Psychologists debate how to define and measure intelligence. • Key questions include how many types of intelligence there are, how intelligence is developed, and how it works in the brain. General (g) vs. Specific (s) Intelligence: • Alfred Binet created the first intelligence test in 1904 to help identify children who needed extra help in school. • Charles Spearman proposed the idea of general intelligence (g), a single factor that underlies all intelligence, which includes abstract thinking, learning, and problemsolving. • Many tests show that while there is a general intelligence (g), some people may also have specific intelligences (s) that are related to particular skills or domains. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg): • Sternberg proposed three types of intelligence: o Analytical Intelligence: Problemsolving and academic skills. o Creative Intelligence: Ability to adapt to new situations and create ideas. o Practical Intelligence: Common sense or "street smarts," learned from life experiences. • Sternberg argued that traditional tests mainly measure analytical intelligence, but creativity and practical intelligence are equally important. Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner): • Gardner proposed that there are eight distinct types of intelligence (and possibly a ninth, existential): o Linguistic: Good with words and language. o Logical-Mathematical: Strong in logic and math. o Spatial: Ability to visualize and think in three dimensions. o Musical: Talent in music and sound. o Kinesthetic (Body): Good at physical activities like sports or dance. o Interpersonal: Understanding and interacting well with others. o Intrapersonal: Insight into oneself and self-awareness. o Naturalistic: Ability to recognize and understand nature and living things. • This idea has influenced education, where teachers may use different methods to suit students' strengths. • Critics argue whether these are truly different types of intelligence or just talents or abilities. Overlap of Intelligence Types: • Despite the variety of intelligences, they are often correlated and may still reflect a broader general intelligence (g). Measuring Intelligence: Standardization and the Intelligence Quotient Purpose of Intelligence Tests: • Intelligence tests aim to measure general intelligence (g), which includes abilities like abstract thinking, learning, and problemsolving. • Good tests are reliable (consistent over time) and valid (accurately measure intelligence). Standardization: • Intelligence tests need to be standardized, meaning they are given to a large group of people at different ages to establish average scores. • Norms (average scores) help us understand intelligence at different age levels. • Intelligence can change with age, so comparing mental age (intellectual performance) with chronological age helps calculate an Intelligence Quotient (IQ). • IQ is often calculated using this formula: IQ = (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100. The Flynn Effect: • Over time, average IQ scores worldwide have been increasing by about 3 points every 10 years. This is called the Flynn effect. • Possible causes: Better nutrition, more access to information, and familiarity with tests. • However, some recent studies show a reversal of the Flynn effect in some countries. Wechsler Scales: • The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is the most widely used intelligence test for adults. • The WAIS-IV includes 15 tasks to measure different aspects of intelligence, like memory, arithmetic, spatial ability, and general knowledge. • The WAIS-IV has high reliability and correlates well with other IQ tests and measures of academic and life success. 5|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • There are also versions of the Wechsler test for children (WISC-V) and preschoolers (WPPSI-IV). Bias in Intelligence Testing: • Critics argue that intelligence tests can be biased, favoring middle-class, AngloAmerican cultures. • Tests often focus on academic intelligence and may not consider other types of intelligence or talent. • What’s considered "smart" can vary between cultures. In some cultures, taking time to think and give a thorough answer is seen as smarter than responding quickly. prestigious professions like law, medicine, and science. • For example, 7% of Terman’s gifted students earned doctoral degrees, and 6% earned law degrees—much higher than the general population. Debate on Gifted Programs: • There’s debate about whether it’s helpful to label students as “gifted” and provide them with specialized programs. • While these programs may benefit gifted students, they could also isolate them from their peers and leave others without access to advanced opportunities. Extremes of Intelligence: Intellectual Disability and Giftedness Education IQ Distribution: • IQ scores follow a normal distribution (bell curve), where most people score near the average (IQ = 100), and fewer people score extremely high or low. • 2% of people score above 130 (gifted) and 2% score below 70 (intellectual disability). • Men tend to have a wider spread of IQ scores than women, meaning more men fall at the extreme ends of the distribution. Intellectual Disability: • Intellectual disability is characterized by low IQ (below 70) and poor adaptive functioning, meaning difficulty in handling everyday tasks. • Around 1% of the U.S. population has an intellectual disability, and it’s more common in males. • Down syndrome is one cause of intellectual disability, resulting from an extra 21st chromosome and causing physical features like a flat nose, slanted eyes, and a short neck. • Laws like the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) now prevent discrimination against those with disabilities and encourage inclusion in schools and workplaces. Giftedness: • Giftedness refers to children with an IQ of 130 or higher. • Gifted children may face challenges, like social adjustment issues, but research (e.g., Lewis Terman’s study) shows that gifted children generally have good health, social relationships, and successful careers. • Gifted students often excel in areas like math, science, arts, music, and leadership. Giftedness and Success: • Terman's study found that gifted children often achieve high levels of education and Ecological Systems Model: • The ecological systems model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) helps us understand how a person’s life is shaped by the different contexts they are part of, such as family, school, and society. • School plays a major role in children's development, especially during middle and late childhood, with influences from both parents and culture. Gender and Stereotypes: • Teachers’ stereotypes about gender can influence how students perform. For example: o Teachers who believe girls are better at reading or boys are better at math may see their students perform according to these expectations, even if the students' actual abilities don't align with these stereotypes. o Children who internalize these stereotypes may perform worse in those areas, even if they are capable of more. Parental Involvement: • Parental involvement in school can vary. Some parents are very engaged, while others are less involved. • Teachers often encourage parents to stay connected by: o Signing behavior charts. o Receiving updates via websites and newsletters. • However, there are challenges with how schools receive parents: o Teachers may be more receptive to parents who agree with them or share similar race and social class, often overlooking parents who criticize the school or its policies. Family Capital: • Parents with higher income, status, or societal advantages (called family capital) are often 6|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT able to influence their children’s education more effectively. • Parents with lower income or less social status may find it harder to be involved or heard. • Schools should work to be more open to all parents, including those from different backgrounds or those with concerns. Addressing Bias: • Teachers and schools need to examine and address any biases they may have against certain parents. • It’s important to encourage open communication and involvement from all parents to support the child’s education effectively. Cultural Differences in the Classroom Bilingualism in the Classroom: • About 20% of school-aged children speak a language other than English at home, with Spanish being the most common second language. • Bilingual students vary in their fluency in both languages—some are fluent in both, while others may struggle with one or both languages. • Students who speak both languages fluently have cognitive advantages, such as being able to express ideas in different ways. • Language loss is a concern. Losing proficiency in their first language can make it harder for students to learn English quickly. • Teachers can be more effective in helping bilingual students if they also speak the student’s first language. Cultural Differences in Language Use: • Politeness in speech: In some cultures, it’s considered impolite to speak unless it’s something important. This may make children seem unfriendly in classrooms where casual conversation is encouraged. • Eye contact: In cultures like African American and Latin American, not making direct eye contact is considered respectful. However, teachers in classrooms may expect eye contact and interpret a lack of it as disrespect. • Social distance: Some cultures are comfortable with close physical proximity during conversations, while others prefer more space. Teachers and students may misunderstand each other's expectations about personal space. • Wait time: Some cultures allow a long pause after someone speaks, while in classrooms, teachers typically expect quicker responses. Students used to longer pauses may appear hesitant, and students expecting quick replies may seem rude. • Questioning style: In many non-Anglo cultures, questions are used to genuinely gather information, while in classrooms, teachers often ask questions they already know the answers to in order to test students’ knowledge. This can confuse students from different cultures. Cooperative vs. Competitive Activities: • Many school activities are competitive, but for some students, especially those from cultures that emphasize cooperation, this can be stressful or confusing. • For students who prefer cooperative activities, competitive settings in the classroom may feel threatening, and they may struggle to understand what’s considered fair or acceptable collaboration. Children with Disabilities Learning Disabilities (LD): • LD is a specific problem in academic learning that affects things like reading, writing, or math, but not all at once. • It's different from learning problems caused by physical disabilities, sensory issues, motor impairments, or learning English as a second language. • Students with LD struggle in one area (e.g., reading or writing), but are often fine in others (e.g., math). • LD is the most common type of special educational need in schools, with many students facing these challenges. • Teachers may notice these issues during academic testing, but these challenges can become less relevant after school, depending on the person's job. Types of Learning Disabilities: • Dyslexia: A reading disability involving difficulty with phonological processing (e.g., sounds, spelling) and letter recognition. It has a neurological basis and is often treated with special teaching methods. • Dysgraphia: A writing disability that may involve difficulty forming letters or writing words phonetically. It can be linked to dyslexia. • Dyscalculia: A math disability where students struggle with things like working memory and understanding numbers or calculations. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): • ADHD is a condition that involves inattention and hyperactive or impulsive behaviors that disrupt normal activities. • Signs include: 7|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o Difficulty paying attention or finishing tasks. o Disorganization, forgetfulness, and being easily distracted. o Hyperactivity, like fidgeting, running around, or difficulty sitting still. o Impulsivity, like blurting out answers or interrupting others. • ADHD affects about 5% of children and is more common in boys. • Children with ADHD may face academic and social challenges, such as lower grades, peer rejection, and more expulsions. • ADHD can continue into adulthood, with effects like lower educational achievement, employment struggles, and substance abuse. Causes of ADHD: • Genetics play a significant role in developing ADHD. • Research suggests dopamine (a neurotransmitter) is involved in ADHD, which may explain the condition's symptoms. • Brain imaging shows that children with ADHD have smaller frontal lobes, which help control behavior. • Smoking during pregnancy and low birth weight may increase the risk of developing ADHD. Treatment for ADHD: • Treatment includes behavioral interventions, therapy, and sometimes medication (e.g., Ritalin, Adderall). • Concerns about medication causing substance abuse are addressed by studies showing that medication can actually reduce the risk of substance abuse. • ADHD treatment can also include lifestyle changes, like improving sleep and educating parents and teachers. Prevalence and Diagnosis: • ADHD diagnoses have been increasing in recent years, partly because of greater awareness and the widespread use of technology. • Some argue ADHD may be over-diagnosed, as symptoms might be mistaken for normal behavior in the digital age. Children with Disabilities: Legislation Shift Toward Inclusion: • Since the 1970s, there has been a movement to include people with disabilities in regular activities. • Laws have been passed in the U.S. to protect the rights of people with disabilities, especially in education. Laws for Disabilities: • Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Section 504: o Requires programs receiving federal funding (like schools or after-school programs) to accommodate people with disabilities. o It protects students' rights in extracurricular activities or child care programs. • Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990: o Prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities, not just in schools but also in jobs and public spaces (like buses and restrooms). o ADA led to improvements like wheelchair ramps and accessible restrooms in schools. • Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): o Focuses on education for students with disabilities, guaranteeing certain rights from birth to age 21. o Provisions: ▪ Free, Appropriate Education: No child with a disability should pay for their education, and the program should be educational, not just caretaking. ▪ Due Process: There must be fair procedures to resolve disagreements between the student with a disability and the school. ▪ Fair Evaluation: Tests and evaluations should be adjusted so students with disabilities are not unfairly disadvantaged. ▪ Least Restrictive Environment: Students with disabilities should be included in regular classrooms and activities as much as possible. ▪ Individualized Educational Program (IEP): Education plans should be tailored to each student's unique needs and created with input from teachers and professionals. Challenges with Diagnosis and Labels: • Misdiagnosis: Sometimes children are misdiagnosed, which can lead to misunderstanding their needs. • Impact of Labels: A child’s self-confidence can be affected by labels like "learning disabled." If a child believes they are supposed to struggle, it might lead to difficulties due to lowered expectations (selffulfilling prophecy). 8|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Changing Needs: A child’s difficulties may improve over time, but their label (like "learning disabled") may remain, even if it no longer applies in adulthood. Erikson: Industry vs. Inferiority • • • • Stage of Development: This happens during middle and late childhood. What Happens During This Time: o Children are very active, constantly doing things like planning, playing, and achieving. o They spend a lot of time with friends and learning new skills. o This is a time when children compare themselves to others (peers) to understand how they measure up. Outcomes of Success or Failure: o If children succeed in their activities, they develop confidence for future challenges. o If they struggle or fail, they may develop a sense of inferiority, feeling less capable than others. Success builds confidence, while failure may lead to feelings of inferiority. Self-Understanding Self-Concept: • Refers to beliefs about personal identity (like age, appearance, behavior, and abilities). • Children in middle and late childhood have a more realistic sense of self than younger children. • They understand their strengths and weaknesses better, thanks to more experience and cognitive flexibility. • They also begin to consider others’ opinions (like from parents, teachers, peers, etc.) as part of their self-concept. • Comparing themselves to others can affect self-esteem (how they evaluate themselves). • If there's a difference between how children see themselves and their ideal self, their selfesteem can drop. Self-Efficacy: • This is the belief in your ability to complete a specific task or reach a goal. • If a student believes they can do something (e.g., math), they're more likely to try. • If they believe they can’t do something, they may avoid trying, even if they have the ability. • Misperceptions of ability can affect motivation (e.g., thinking you’re worse or better at something than you really are). • The ideal self-efficacy level is somewhere close to your true abilities—either matching or slightly above. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Kohlberg's Focus: • He wanted to understand how people decide what is right and wrong as they grow older. • He built on Piaget's work and believed moral development happens through thinking and reasoning. • Kohlberg created six stages of moral development, grouped into three levels. Moral Dilemmas: • Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas to people (children, teenagers, and adults) to understand their moral reasoning. • Example: A man’s wife is dying, and he needs a drug to save her. He can’t afford it, so he considers stealing it. Is this right or wrong? Kohlberg’s Three Levels of Moral Reasoning Level 1 - Preconventional Morality (focus on self-interest): • Stage 1: Moral decisions are based on avoiding punishment. o Example: "The man shouldn't steal because he could get caught." • Stage 2: Moral decisions are based on selfinterest or rewards. o Example: "The man should steal the drug because his wife will be grateful." • This stage is self-centered, focusing on consequences for the individual. Level 2 - Conventional Morality (focus on social norms): • Stage 3: Moral decisions are based on what others think (e.g., pleasing others). o Example: "The man should steal the drug to be seen as a good husband." • Stage 4: Moral decisions are based on following laws and rules to maintain order. o Example: "The man shouldn't steal because it’s illegal." • This stage focuses on societal rules and approval. Level 3 - Postconventional Morality (focus on universal ethical principles): • Stage 5: Moral decisions are based on social contracts and the greater good for society. o Example: "The man should steal because his wife's life is more important than the law." 9|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Stage 6: Moral decisions are based on universal ethical principles, like justice and equality. o Example: "The man should not steal because it goes against the principle of respecting property." • This stage goes beyond laws, focusing on higher ethical principles. Critiques of Kohlberg’s Theory: • Complexity: o Some argue people can use higher reasoning for some issues but revert to lower reasoning when it aligns with personal goals. • Cultural Bias: o The theory may apply more to Western cultures, where justice and individual rights are emphasized, rather than nonWestern cultures. • Gender Differences: o Carol Gilligan argued that Kohlberg’s theory might describe male moral development better, as men tend to focus on justice, while women focus on caring and relationships. Friends and Peers Early Friendships: • Toddlers may show preferences for certain playmates, but their interactions are often parallel (playing near each other, not with each other). • By age 4, children start using the term "friend," but friendships at this age are usually based on proximity or who they’re playing with. Stages of Friendship (according to Bigelow & La Gaipa) Stage 1 - Reward-Cost: • Focus on mutual activities and shared interests. • Early, middle, and late childhood friendships are based on doing things together. Stage 2 - Normative Expectation: • Friendship is about kindness, sharing, and being fair. • Emphasis on moral behaviors, like being considerate to one another. Stage 3 - Empathy and Understanding: • Friendship becomes about loyalty, trust, and sharing personal information. • Older children and teens value deeper emotional connections. Selman’s Five Stages of Friendship: Momentary Physical Interaction (ages 3-6): • A friend is just someone you are playing with at the moment. • Friendships are based more on circumstances than on similarities. One-Way Assistance (ages 5-9): • A friend is someone who does nice things for you. • Children at this stage may not think about what they give to the friendship. Fair-Weather Cooperation (ages 7-12): • A friend is someone who returns favors. • Children at this stage care about fairness and reciprocity in the friendship. Intimate and Mutual Sharing (ages 8-15): • A friend is someone you can share deep feelings and personal thoughts with. • Friendships are based on trust, and breaking that trust can end the friendship. Autonomous Interdependence (ages 12+): • A friend is someone who accepts you for who you are. • Friendships become more flexible, with less jealousy or possessiveness. Peer Relationships Sociometric Assessment: A way to measure friendships in a group by asking kids who they like or dislike playing with. • Popular children: Well-liked by most. • Rejected children: Often disliked by peers, may be shy (rejected-withdrawn) or aggressive (rejected-aggressive). • Controversial children: Liked by some, disliked by others. • Neglected children: Rarely mentioned, neither liked nor disliked. Types of Popularity: • Popular-prosocial: Friendly, good social skills, do well in school. • Popular-antisocial: May act tough or spread rumors to gain popularity. Rejected Children: • Rejected-withdrawn: Shy, easy target for bullying. • Rejected-aggressive: Loud and confrontational, which leads to rejection. Consequences of Popularity: • Positive Effects: Popularity in childhood leads to better social skills, healthier relationships, higher income, and better health in adulthood. • Negative Effects of Unpopularity: Unpopular children may struggle with anxiety, depression, and social skills. They are also more likely to 10 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • experience physical and mental health issues as they grow older. Social Rejection: Being rejected in childhood can activate genes that cause an inflammatory response, which can affect both physical and mental health. Bullying What is Bullying? • Bullying is unwanted, aggressive behavior among school-aged children that involves an imbalance of power. • The bullying happens repeatedly or has the potential to do so. Types of bullying: • Verbal Bullying: Saying mean things, teasing, name-calling, threatening, or making inappropriate comments. • Social (Relational) Bullying: Spreading rumors, excluding someone on purpose, or embarrassing someone. • Physical Bullying: Hurting someone’s body or possessions. • Cyberbullying: Using technology to hurt others (e.g., mean texts, fake profiles, embarrassing posts online). Cyberbullying • Cyberbullying happens online or through electronic devices. o Examples: Sending mean messages, creating fake online profiles, posting embarrassing pictures or rumors. • Cyberbullying is harder to escape because it can happen anytime, anywhere. • Effects of Cyberbullying: o Increases risk of in-person bullying. o Causes poor school performance, low self-esteem, and health problems. o Children may avoid school, use drugs or alcohol, and feel isolated. Bullying Statistics • 2010-2011: 28% of students in grades 6-12 were bullied, and 7% were cyberbullied. • 2013: 20% of high school students were bullied, and 15% experienced cyberbullying. Who is at Risk for Being Bullied? • Higher risk: o LGBTQ youth, children with disabilities, socially isolated kids. o Children who are perceived as "different," weak, unpopular, overweight, or have low self-esteem. • Who are the Bullies? Bullies are often seen as having low self-esteem, but many have high selfesteem and enjoy being in control of others. o They often have social power and are popular among peers but lack empathy. Why Don’t Kids Ask for Help? • Many kids don’t report bullying because: o They fear retaliation (getting bullied more). o They are embarrassed or believe no one will help. o They may not know who to turn to, especially if they’re socially isolated. Signs of a Child Being Bullied • Look out for these warning signs: o Unexplained injuries. o Lost or damaged possessions. o Changes in eating or sleeping habits. o Drop in grades or school attendance. o Loss of friends or social withdrawal. o Decreased self-esteem or selfdestructive behaviors. o Family Life Family Tasks • Families have important roles to support children’s development: o Providing basic needs: Food, clothing, and shelter. o Encouraging learning: Helping children learn and grow intellectually. o Developing self-esteem: Building confidence and a positive self-image. o Nurturing friendships: Helping children develop social skills and relationships with peers. o Providing stability: Ensuring a harmonious and supportive environment. • A good family environment meets a child’s physical, emotional, social, and intellectual needs. Families come in all types, and these tasks can be fulfilled in various family structures. Parenting Styles • Children grow more independent as they age, so parents may need to adjust their approach. • Authoritative Parenting: Involves reasoning and joint decision-making; often considered the most effective. • Some cultures (e.g., Asian-American, AfricanAmerican, Mexican-American) may use an Authoritarian Style, which is strict but also involves warmth and acceptance. Kids from 11 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT these families tend to be confident and successful. Living Arrangements of Children • 1960: 92% of children lived with married parents; 5% had divorced or separated parents. • 2008: 70% of children lived with married parents; 15% had divorced parents. • 2017: 65% of children lived with married parents; 32% lived with unmarried parents. • Children in single-parent households often face economic challenges, with many living in poverty. Lesbian and Gay Parenting • Studies show that children of lesbian and gay parents are as successful as those of heterosexual parents. • No evidence of harm or differences in social, emotional, or academic development for children raised by LGBTQ+ parents. Divorce and Its Impact • Divorce can cause emotional and financial challenges for children, leading to: o Behavior problems: More likely to occur in families with lower financial resources. o Financial strain: Custodial mothers, in particular, may experience a significant drop in income after divorce. o Changes in lifestyle: Children may lose access to things like toys, activities, or vacations. o Long-term effects: Children of divorced parents may face challenges forming relationships and have lower education or job success, but these effects can be lessened with support. o Positive coping: Children fare better when parents limit conflict, provide emotional support, and maintain stability. Cohabitation and Remarriage o Cohabitation: Children may find it difficult to adjust to their parent’s live-in partner, especially since cohabiting relationships can often be short-lived. o Remarriage: Adjusting to a stepparent can be harder than divorce itself. Children may struggle with new family rules and developing a relationship with their stepparent. Blended Families • Blended families are formed when parents divorce and remarry. These families can face challenges such as: o o o Uncertainty: Children may feel insecure about their relationships with stepparents or step-siblings. Conflicting rules: Different rules in each household can be confusing. Emotional adjustments: Stepparents and children may struggle with affection and role expectations. 12 | H i k a m a c c h i