Chapter 3: Infancy and Toddlerhood

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Infancy and Toddlerhood The Brain in the First Two Years Infant Sleep From Reflexes to Voluntary Movements Motor Development Sensory Capacities Nutrition Global Considerations and Malnutrition Piaget and the Sensorimotor Stage Language Components of Language Language Developmental Progression Theories of Language Development Temperament Infant Emotions Forming Attachments Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation Technique Erikson: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt and Toddlerhood Infancy Measuring Infant Development Focus on Early Development • Infancy and toddlerhood (first two years) are highly significant in physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development. • Researchers have emphasized this period due to dramatic changes and their long-lasting impact, though some argue the significance is overstated (Bruer, 1999). Physical Growth • Newborn Characteristics: o Average weight: 7.5 pounds (range: 510 pounds). o Average length: 20 inches. o Weight Loss After Birth: Newborns typically lose about 5% of body weight in the first few days, which is temporary and mostly goes unnoticed. • Rapid Growth in the First Two Years: o By 4 months: Infant's weight doubles. o By 1 year: Weight triples from birth. o By 2 years: Weight quadruples, typically ranging between 20-40 pounds. o Length: ▪ 1 year old: Around 29.5 inches. ▪ 2 years old: Around 34.4 inches (Bloem, 2007). Body Proportions: • • At Birth: The head is about 25% of the infant’s total body length. In the Womb: The head makes up about 50% of total length. By Age 25: The head comprises about 20% of the person's total length. The Brain in the First Two Years Neurons and Brain Growth • Neuron Count: Babies are born with approximately 85 billion neurons (brain cells), which are responsible for storing and transmitting information (Huttenlocher & Dabholkar, 1997). • Neurons at Birth: Neurons are not fully mature at birth but undergo significant development in the first two years. Brain Processes • Dendrite Proliferation: Dendrites (branches on neurons that collect information) undergo a period of rapid growth. By age 2, a single neuron may have thousands of dendrites. • Synaptogenesis: The formation of new connections between neurons, known as synaptic blooming, occurs during infancy and toddlerhood. • Synaptic Pruning: Neural connections are reduced, strengthening the connections that are used often. Around 40% of connections will be lost, making the brain more efficient (Kolb & Whishaw, 2011). Myelination • Myelin Development: Myelin, a fatty substance that coats axons (nerve fibers), speeds up nerve signal transmission and improves coordination and thought processes. Myelination continues into adolescence but is most dramatic during the first few years (Carlson, 2014). Brain Growth Milestones • At Birth: Brain weighs about 250 grams (0.5 pounds). • By 1 Year: Brain grows to 750 grams. • Adult Size: Newborn brain is about 33% of adult brain size, and by 90 days, it's already 55% of adult size (Holland et al., 2014). • Neural Activity: Most neural activity occurs in the cortex, the outer layer of the brain involved in voluntary actions and thinking. Brain Structure • Cortex Divisions o Frontal Lobe: Thinking, planning, memory, and judgment. o Parietal Lobe: Touch sensation processing. o Occipital Lobe: Visual information processing. 1|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o Temporal Lobe: Hearing and language processing (Jarrett, 2015). • Developmental Differences o Primary motor areas (movement control) develop earlier than primary sensory areas (sensation processing). o The prefrontal cortex (behind the forehead) is the least developed in infancy but becomes important for emotion regulation, planning, and judgment as it matures. Lateralization • The process where specific functions become more localized in one hemisphere of the brain. o Left Hemisphere: Language production. o Right Hemisphere: Visuospatial abilities (Springer & Deutsch, 1993). • Lateralization develops over time and begins in fetuses and infants (Chi et al., 1997). Neuroplasticity • The brain’s ability to physically and chemically change in response to environmental changes and to repair injuries. • Adaptability: Brain can reorganize to perform damaged functions. • Effect of Age: Neuroplasticity is more pronounced in infants than in adults (Kolb & Whishaw, 2011). Infant Sleep Infant Sleep Patterns • Newborn Sleep: A newborn typically sleeps around 16.5 hours per day in multiple sleep periods (polyphasic sleep) (Salkind, 2005). • Sleep by Age: o 1 Month: Approximately 15 hours per day. o 6 Months: Around 14 hours per day. o 2 Years: About 10 hours per day. • REM Sleep: Newborns spend about 50% of their sleep in Rapid Eye Movement (REM) phase, which decreases to 25%-30% as they grow. Sudden Unexpected Infant Deaths (SUID) • SUID refers to deaths of infants under 1 year of age with no immediately obvious cause (CDC, 2019). • Types of SUID o Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS): The leading cause of death for infants 1-12 months old. No clear cause found after medical investigation. SIDS may be linked to abnormalities in the brainstem, which regulates breathing (WeekesShackelford & Shackelford, 2005). o Unknown Cause: Deaths where the cause remains unexplained due to insufficient investigation. In 2017, 1300 infants died from unknown causes (CDC, 2019). o Accidental Suffocation and Strangulation in Bed: Includes suffocation by soft bedding, being rolled on by another person, being wedged between objects, or strangulation by crib railings. In 2017, 900 infants died from these causes (CDC, 2019). SUID Trends • SUID Death Rate: The rate of SUID deaths decreased after the Back to Sleep campaign (1994) and safe sleep guidelines, such as placing infants on their backs (nonprone position). • Accidental Suffocation: Deaths from accidental suffocation and strangulation in bed have increased since 1998, reaching the highest rate in 2017. Bed-Sharing and SIDS Risk • Risk Factors: Studies show that infants under 3 months are more likely to die of SIDS if they bed-share with parents. Bedsharing increases SIDS risk, even without smoking or drug use. • Study Findings: Infants who slept in a separate sleep space but in the same room as parents had a lower risk of SIDS (Carpenter et al., 2013). • Cultural Differences: In some cultures, cosleeping (bed-sharing) is common, but parents often use hard surfaces like floor mats to minimize suffocation risks (Nelson et al., 2000). Recommendations for Safe Sleep • Infants should sleep on their backs, in a separate sleep surface (such as a crib), without soft bedding, and avoid bed-sharing to reduce the risk of SIDS and accidental suffocation. Reflexes to Voluntary Movements Infant Reflexes • Reflexes are involuntary movements in response to certain stimuli. • Reflexes help in initial survival and provide insights into the development of the nervous system. Common Infant Reflexes • Sucking Reflex: Baby sucks on anything that touches their lips (important for feeding). 2|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Rooting Reflex: When the cheek is touched, babies turn their head toward the stimulus (helps find the nipple for feeding). • Grasp Reflex: Fingers automatically grip anything that touches the palm. • Babinski Reflex: When the sole of the foot is stroked from heel to toe, the toes fan out and curl. • Moro Reflex: A sudden noise or loss of head support causes the infant to spread arms and legs, then quickly contract them inward (startle reflex). • Tonic Neck Reflex: When lying on the back with the head turned to one side, the infant extends the arm and leg on that side and flexes the limbs on the opposite side (fencer pose). • Stepping Reflex: When the feet touch a smooth surface, the infant's legs move in a stepping motion. Development of Reflexes • Reflexes like sucking and rooting are crucial for feeding. • Reflexes such as grasping and stepping will eventually be replaced by more voluntary movements. • By the first few months, many reflexes disappear, but others (such as eye-blink, swallowing, sneezing, gagging, and withdrawal reflex) continue to serve important functions. Significance of Reflexes • Reflexes provide pediatricians with information about the health and maturation of the infant’s nervous system. • Persistent Reflexes: Reflexes that remain longer than expected may indicate developmental issues. • Preterm or Neurologically Impaired Infants: Reflexes might be absent at birth or persist longer in these infants (El-Dib et al., 2012). Motor Development Motor Development Sequence • Development follows an orderly sequence, from reflexive reactions to advanced motor skills. • Two principles: o Cephalocaudal: Development from head to tail (e.g., holding the head up first). o Proximodistal: Development from the midline outward (e.g., controlling the arms before the hands). Developmental Milestones • Holding Head Up: Achieved by 6 weeks on average; 90% of babies do so between 3 weeks and 4 months. • Sitting Alone: Achieved at 7 months on average; 90% of babies achieve this between 5 and 9 months. • Delays in milestones may signal developmental concerns and require early intervention. Motor Skills • Fine Motor Skills: Coordination of small muscles, like those in the fingers, toes, and eyes (e.g., grasping a toy, writing). o Palmer Grasp (around 4 months): Grasping objects using the palm and fingers. o Pincer Grasp (around 9 months): Grasping objects with the thumb and forefinger, allowing for better object manipulation. • Gross Motor Skills: Involve larger muscle groups (head, torso, arms, legs) for actions like balancing, running, and jumping. o Begin developing earlier than fine motor skills (e.g., lifting the chin while lying on the stomach, rocking on hands and knees). o Infants as young as 8 weeks explore objects with their feet. o Babies may move backward instead of forward while crawling due to stronger arm muscles compared to leg muscles. Motor Skill Development • Motor skills emerge gradually and in a specific order, with gross motor skills developing before fine motor skills. • Early development of motor skills is crucial for later physical and cognitive abilities. Sensory Capacities Vision • Vision at birth is underdeveloped due to lack of visual stimulation in the womb. • Newborns can see only 8-10 inches away, with vision at 20/300 (compared to adult vision of 20/20). • By 3 months, visual acuity improves to 20/200. • The fovea (responsible for sharp vision) isn't fully developed at birth and matures around 15 months. • Newborns can see pure colors (like vivid red or green) but struggle with pastels. • Preference for face-like stimuli (especially upright faces) is noticeable from birth. 3|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Face Recognition: By 1 month, infants focus on outer features of faces; by 2 months, they focus on eyes, nose, and mouth. • Visual Development o One-month-olds: Difficulty disengaging attention, jerky eye movements, lag behind object movement. o Two months: Eye movements become smoother. o Three months: Binocular vision (using both eyes) develops, and depth perception starts improving. Hearing • Infants have well-developed hearing at birth and can hear sounds as early as 7 months in utero. • Newborns show a preference for their mother's voice over other female voices. • Prenatal Learning: Infants can recognize stories read by their mothers during pregnancy. • Sound Discrimination: By 1 month, infants can distinguish sounds and voices; by 6-9 months, they show a preference for their native language. Touch and Pain • Newborns are sensitive to touch, temperature, and pain. • Crying and cardiovascular responses indicate pain sensitivity, such as during circumcision without anesthesia. • Pain Studies: Infants experience more pain from procedures like circumcision if not given pain relief. Taste and Smell • Newborns can differentiate between tastes (e.g., sweet, sour, bitter) and prefer sweet flavors. • They show a preference for their mother’s scent and can recognize their mother’s breast pad within 6 days of birth. • Infants also prefer their mother's face over others shortly after birth. Intermodality (Sensory Integration) • Infants can perceive the world through multiple sensory modalities (e.g., touch, vision). • At 4 months, they can match visual and auditory stimuli (e.g., matching lip movements to speech sounds). Infant Testing Methods • Habituation Procedures: Measuring reduced responsiveness after repeated stimuli to assess memory and perceptual skills. o Example: Sucking rate increases with a new sound and decreases with repeated exposure. • • Habituation Speed: Affects future developmental outcomes (e.g., language acquisition). Delayed Habituation: Can signal developmental concerns, especially in highrisk infants (e.g., those with Down syndrome, malnutrition, or prematurity). Nutrition Breast Milk • Colostrum (first breast milk) is rich in nutrients and antibodies, providing essential immunity. • After the first few days, breast milk becomes thinner but is perfectly balanced with the right amounts of fat, sugar, proteins, and water for the infant's growth. • Easier for babies to digest compared to formula, with fewer issues like diarrhea and upset stomachs. • Health Benefits: o Reduces the risk of childhood leukemia, asthma, obesity, type 1 and 2 diabetes, and SIDS. o Boosts brain development and overall physical health. • Recommendations: The USDHHS recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months, continuing breastfeeding alongside solid foods for at least the first year or two. Benefits for Mothers • Breastfeeding promotes uterine contractions to help the uterus return to its normal size after childbirth. • Reduces the risk of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, Type 2 diabetes, and rheumatoid arthritis. • Benefits are stronger when breastfeeding continues beyond 6 months. Breastfeeding Statistics • 83.2% of mothers breastfeed at some point, but many stop exclusive breastfeeding after 68 weeks, often due to returning to work. • Some workplaces support breastfeeding, but many do not provide the necessary accommodations (flexible schedules, breastfeeding-friendly policies). Challenges • Not all women can breastfeed (e.g., women with HIV, certain medications, or undergoing radiation treatments). • Some mothers may face difficulty due to a lack of support from family, workplaces, or healthcare systems. Cost Advantage 4|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Breastfeeding is free, while formula feeding can cost $1,500-$3,000 per year, including bottles and supplies. Emotional Development • Both breastfed and bottle-fed infants adjust equally well emotionally, so breastfeeding isn't essential for emotional bonding. Introducing Solid Foods • Solid foods should be introduced when the infant is ready, typically between 4-6 months. • Signs of readiness include: o Sitting up without support o Holding head up steadily o Showing interest in food o Still hungry after breastfeeding/formula o Can move food around in mouth and turn away when full • First Foods: Begin with iron-fortified infant cereals (rice, oatmeal, barley) mixed with breast milk or formula. • Finger Foods: Soft fruits, vegetable strips, or toast can be introduced around 10-12 months. • Introducing New Foods: Introduce one new food at a time for a few days to check for allergies. • Avoid: Choking hazards (e.g., sticky foods like peanut butter, large chunks of food like cheese, or round foods like grapes); honey and corn syrup (risk of botulism in infants under 12 months). Global Considerations and Malnutrition Types of Malnutrition • Infantile Marasmus: Severe starvation due to a lack of calories and protein. Children lose fat and muscle until their bodies no longer function. • Kwashiorkor: A type of malnutrition resulting from protein deficiency, often after weaning when another child is born. It leads to loss of appetite and abdominal swelling as the body begins to break down vital organs for protein. Risk Factors for Malnutrition • Breastfeeding vs. Bottle-feeding: Breastfed babies are less at risk of malnutrition than bottle-fed babies. • Weaning: After weaning, children with protein-deficient diets are more likely to develop kwashiorkor. Global Prevalence • In 2014, 50 million children under age 5 suffered from wasting (lack of nutrition), with 16 million severely wasted. • Regions most affected: Asia (34.3 million children) and Africa (13.9 million children). Causes of Wasting • Severe food shortages. • Regional diets lacking essential proteins and vitamins. • Infectious diseases that reduce appetite. Consequences of Wasting • If not treated early, malnutrition can lead to death, especially in severe cases. • In some cultures, delayed medical treatment leads to fatalities within days of hospitalization. Long-Term Effects • Early malnutrition can cause cognitive and developmental issues, even when home environments are controlled. • Reported effects: o Lower IQ scores. o Poor attention span. o Behavioral issues in school. • Studies indicate these effects persist into later childhood (Galler & Ramsey, 1989; Galler et al., 1990). Piaget and the Sensorimotor Stage • Cognitive Equilibrium: The balance between what we know and what we experience. • Schema: A framework to organize new information. o Assimilation: Fitting new information into an existing schema (e.g., calling all four-legged animals “doggies”). o Accommodation: Changing or expanding the schema to fit new information (e.g., realizing that a horse and a zebra are different). Sensorimotor Stage • Infants learn through their senses and motor abilities, which form the basis for later cognitive development. This stage includes six substages. Six Substages of Sensorimotor Development 1. Substage 1: Reflexes (0–1 month) o Infants learn about the world through reflexes (e.g., sucking, grasping). 2. Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions (1– 4 months) o Infants begin repeating actions that involve their own bodies (e.g., making a sound and repeating it because it’s interesting). 3. Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions (4–8 months) o Infants start interacting with objects deliberately (e.g., banging lids together). 4. Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8–12 months) 5|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o Infants begin planning and coordinating actions to achieve specific goals (e.g., crawling to reach a toy). 5. Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (12–18 months) o Toddlers experiment with new behaviors and actions, like a "little scientist" (e.g., throwing a ball down stairs to see what happens). 6. Substage 6: Beginning of Representational Thought (18–24 months) o The toddler can use mental strategies, engage in pretend play, and represent objects with symbols. Development of Object Permanence • Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight (e.g., babies search for a hidden toy). • Infants typically master this by 8 months. • Stranger Anxiety: Fear of unfamiliar people, often coinciding with the development of object permanence. Critique of Piaget • Piaget believed object permanence developed later in the sensorimotor stage, but recent research shows: o Infants as young as 3 months understand the properties of objects. o Studies (e.g., Baillargeon, 1987) show infants have a concept of object permanence and how objects interact even earlier than Piaget suggested. • Piaget's mistake: He underestimated infants' ability to understand objects and their properties due to limited experiences. • Example: At 6 months, infants retrieve a hidden object if the wait is short, suggesting earlier object permanence. • Baillargeon’s study: At 3 months, infants understood solid objects can't pass through each other, showing early object knowledge. understanding the concept of "self," which infants and toddlers lack. Studies on Infant Memory • Rovee-Collier’s Research: o Demonstrated that infants can remember events, though these memories are short-lived. o Example: Mobile Study (RoveeCollier, 1987): ▪ 3-month-olds were taught to make a mobile shake by kicking their legs. ▪ After a week, infants who were shown the mobile again started kicking their legs, showing memory recall. ▪ A second group of infants, shown the mobile two weeks later, did not remember, showing memory fade. o Context Dependency: Memory is highly dependent on context. If retrieval conditions (e.g., mobile design) were different, babies wouldn’t remember. Longer-Term Memory • After 6 months: o Infants can retain information for longer periods. o They need less reminding to retrieve information. • Deferred Imitation (Imitating actions after a delay): o Can start as early as 6 months if infants practice the behavior shown to them. o By 12 months, infants can retain memories for longer (e.g., up to 4 weeks) without needing to practice the behavior. Language Infant Memory • Infantile Amnesia • The inability to recall memories from the first few years of life. • Possible Causes o Biological: Immaturity of the brain, especially areas like the hippocampus that are important for autobiographical memory. o Cognitive: Lack of linguistic skills in babies may hinder their ability to encode and represent memories. o Social: Episodic memories (personal experiences) might depend on • • • Language is a system of communication using symbols in a regular way to create meaning. It allows us to express and share our intelligence with others through speaking, reading, and writing. Uniqueness o While other species may communicate, none have language like humans. Purpose of Language o Language enables communication of ideas, thoughts, and emotions with others. 6|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Components of Language Phoneme • The smallest unit of sound that makes a meaningful difference in a language (e.g., the word “bit” has three phonemes). • In spoken languages, phonemes are produced by vocal tract movements (lips, tongue, vocal cords, etc.). • In sign languages, phonemes are defined by hand shapes and movements. • Different languages use a small subset of possible phonemes. English has about 45, while some languages have as few as 15 or as many as 60. • Infants can detect all phonemes at birth but lose the ability to recognize non-native phonemes by around 10 months. Morpheme • The smallest unit of meaning in language. • Can be single words or parts of words (e.g., prefixes like “re-” and suffixes like “-est”). • Example: "re-" in "rewrite" means "to do again." Semantics • The rules for deriving meaning from morphemes. • Example: Adding "ed" to a verb makes it past tense (e.g., "talk" becomes "talked"). Syntax • The set of rules for constructing sentences in a language. • Example: In English, sentences need a subject and a verb ("The man bites the dog" vs. "The dog bites the man"). • Syntax also governs word order and sentence structure. Pragmatics • The social use of language and how we communicate effectively. • Involves turn-taking, staying on topic, appropriate volume/tone, and eye contact. Contextual Information • Words don’t have fixed meanings; their interpretation changes based on context. • We use surrounding context, nonverbal cues (e.g., facial expressions), and knowledge to interpret language. • Misunderstandings can occur if context is ignored or missing (e.g., in text messages or headlines). Language Developmental Progression Early Communication • Babies start developing language and communication skills before birth. • Newborns communicate through body posture, gestures, cries, and facial expressions. • They do not use oral language, but caregivers learn to differentiate between different types of cries (e.g., hunger, pain). Intentional Vocalizations • Babies begin cooing (one-syllable combinations of consonant and vowel sounds) almost immediately. • The tone of cooing may vary based on the language spoken by parents (e.g., French vs. Spanish). • Cooing serves as vocalization practice and helps infants learn conversational rhythm. Babbling • Around 7 months, babies start babbling with consonant-vowel sequences (e.g., ma-mama). • Babbling helps practice language sounds and introduces a conversational tone, though it lacks meaning. • Babies exposed to sign language may babble with hand gestures as well. Gesturing • Children communicate with gestures long before speaking. • Gesturing can predict later language development. • Deaf babies also use gestures to communicate, and sign language may be taught to aid communication. Understanding (Receptive Language) • Around 10 months, babies understand more than they can say. • First words typically recognized by 6 months (e.g., "mama," "doggie"). • Babies use contextual cues (e.g., facial expressions) to understand language. • They can follow simple verbal instructions like "wave bye-bye" by 9–12 months. Holophrastic Speech • Around 12-13 months, children start using one-word expressions (holophrases) to convey full thoughts. • Example: “Ju” may mean "juice" or "bottle." • Interpretation may be difficult for someone unfamiliar with the child. Language Errors 7|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Early speech includes errors like simplifying complex sounds (e.g., saying "keekee" for "kitty"). • Children may also make underextension errors (e.g., only calling their dog “doggie”) or overextension (e.g., calling all animals “doggie”). First Words and Cultural Influence • In English, children tend to learn nouns first (e.g., "cup," "ball"). • In verb-friendly languages like Chinese, children may learn more verbs. • Cultural differences may affect which words children learn first (e.g., focus on objects vs. actions). Two-Word Sentences & Telegraphic Speech • By the toddler stage (around 2 years), children start using 2-word sentences like "baby bye-bye" or "doggie pretty." • These expressions omit unnecessary words, similar to "text message" language (e.g., "Give baby ball" instead of "Give the baby the ball"). Infant-Directed Speech • Adults use a specific speech style called infant-directed speech, characterized by exaggerated vowel/consonant sounds, a highpitched voice, and expressive facial expressions. • This helps infants focus more on the sounds and tones of speech, aiding language development. • Infants are more attentive to this type of speech and may learn better from it. Theories of Language Development Nature vs. Nurture in Language Development • Language acquisition is partly inborn (nature) and partly learned through interactions with the environment (nurture). Nativism (Noam Chomsky) • Language Acquisition Device (LAD): Humans have an innate ability to acquire language, guided by a universal grammar. • Children are born with knowledge of basic grammar rules, and language develops when they are exposed to it. • Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure: o Deep structure: Underlying universal grammar. o Surface structure: The specific expression of language. • Criticism: Some languages don’t follow universal grammar rules, challenging the idea of a universal LAD. Brain Areas for Language • Broca’s Area: Located in the left hemisphere, responsible for language production. • Wernicke’s Area: Also in the left hemisphere, responsible for language comprehension. • Right Hemisphere: Some left-handed individuals may have language functions in the right hemisphere. Critical Period for Language • A specific window for language learning exists between infancy and puberty. • Case Studies: o Victor (The Wild Child): A child raised without language exposure never fully learned language. o Genie: A child isolated from language exposure until late childhood showed limited language development. • Studies on Hearing Impairment: Early identification and treatment of hearing loss result in better language outcomes. Learning Theory (Skinner & Bandura) • Skinner: Language development occurs through association, reinforcement, and imitation. • Children learn language by hearing it and receiving feedback (e.g., praise for correct speech). • Bandura: Children imitate and observe language use in their environment. • Generativity: Children create new sentences they’ve never heard before, such as "swimmed." • Limitations of Learning Theory: Children acquire language too fast for it to be entirely learned through reinforcement; also, children sometimes create language rules not explicitly taught to them. Social Pragmatics • Language is a social tool used for communication, cooperation, and connecting with others. • Pre-linguistic Skills: Children use gestures (like pointing) to communicate needs and help others. • Linguistic Repairs: Children fix misunderstandings in conversations, showing an understanding of social interaction. Temperament • Temperament refers to the innate characteristics of infants, including their mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity, noticeable soon after birth. New York Longitudinal Study (Chess & Thomas, 1956): • 9 Dimensions of Temperament: 8|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o Activity level, rhythmicity (biological regularity), approach/withdrawal (response to new things), adaptability, intensity of reactions, threshold of responsiveness, quality of mood, distractibility, attention span, and persistence. 3 General Types of Temperament • Easy Child (40%): o Adapts quickly to routines and new situations. o Remains calm and easy to soothe, usually in a positive mood. • Difficult Child (10%): o Reacts negatively to new situations and struggles to adapt. o Has a negative mood and cries frequently. • Slow-to-Warm-Up Child (15%): o Low activity level and adjusts slowly to new situations. o Often in a negative mood. Goodness-of-Fit • The idea that children and parents interact best when their temperamental styles align. • Example: A parent taking an adventurous child on hikes creates a good “fit” for that child’s temperament. Parent-Child Interaction • Parenting is bidirectional: children's temperaments affect parenting, and vice versa. • Easy Temperament: Parents feel more effective, as the child is easier to soothe and interact with. • Difficult Temperament: Parents may feel less effective and more stressed, which can impact their behavior toward the child. Impact on Parenting • Parents of difficult children may become more punitive and less patient over time. • Difficult children can also lead to less satisfaction in marriages and more challenges in balancing work and family roles. Temperament vs. Personality • Temperament: Innate and tends to remain stable throughout life, though individuals can learn to manage it. • Personality: Develops from temperament over time, shaped by both biological factors and life experiences. • As children grow, they develop selfregulation and their temperament may evolve with parental support and increased security. Temperament's Role in Personality Development • Temperament is the foundation of personality development. • Over time, experiences and relationships further shape the child's personality, including their self-concept, motivations, values, coping styles, and other personal qualities. Infant Emotions Initial Emotional Responses • Attraction: Infants are drawn to pleasant stimuli like comfort, pleasure, and stimulation. • Withdrawal: Infants avoid unpleasant stimuli, such as bitter tastes or discomfort. Development of Emotions • Social Smiling (2 months): Infants begin responding with smiles to positive social interactions. • Laughter (3-5 months): Pleasure is expressed through laughter. • Displeasure (6-8 months): Specific emotions like anger, fear, and sadness emerge. o Anger: Often a response to being blocked from a goal (e.g., toy being taken away). o Sadness: Typically results from caregiver deprivation. o Fear: Linked to strangers (stranger wariness) or separation from caregivers (separation anxiety). • Jealousy: May appear as early as 6 months. Basic vs. Self-Conscious Emotions • Basic Emotions: Initial emotions like interest, happiness, fear, anger, sadness, surprise, and disgust. • Self-Conscious Emotions: More complex emotions like pride, shame, guilt, envy, doubt, and embarrassment, which develop as the child gains a self-concept and receives social instruction. o Cultural Differences: ▪ Individualistic cultures emphasize pride in personal achievement. ▪ Collectivist cultures teach modesty and discourages drawing attention to oneself. Social Referencing • Infants use facial expressions to guide their actions in uncertain situations (e.g., visual cliff experiment). • Infants look to caregivers' facial expressions (e.g., fear, joy) to decide how to respond. • Results from Studies: o Infants are less likely to cross the visual cliff when caregivers express fear (0% did so with fear). o Infants show greater inhibition with expressions of anger and disgust compared to neutral expressions. 9|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Emotional Self-Regulation • The ability to control emotional responses to achieve goals. • Early Development: Infants rely heavily on caregivers for soothing and emotional regulation. • By 4-6 months: Babies can begin shifting attention away from distressing stimuli. • Older Infants and Toddlers: Can more effectively communicate needs and manage emotions (e.g., walking away from distressing situations). • Temperament's Role: A child’s temperament influences how well they can regulate their emotions. Self-Awareness Development (2nd Year of Life) • Sense of Self: Around 15-24 months, children begin to recognize themselves as separate from others. • Mirror Test (Lewis & Brooks, 1978): Infants with a spot of rouge on their nose touch their nose in front of a mirror, indicating selfrecognition. • Social Emotions Development: With selfawareness, children start to understand emotions like guilt, shame, embarrassment, empathy, and sympathy. • Findings reinforced that infants need a secure base to feel safe and explore the world. Bowlby’s Attachment Theory • Attachment Definition: A strong emotional bond between an infant and their caregiver (typically the mother). • Secure Base: A caregiver provides a sense of safety, allowing the child to explore and gain confidence. • Bowlby emphasized that this attachment bond is crucial for normal emotional and social development. • Two Key Elements for Healthy Attachment: o The caregiver must be responsive to the child's physical, social, and emotional needs. o The caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions. • Separation Anxiety: Infants show strong reactions to separation (e.g., crying, refusal to be comforted) as part of an evolutionary survival mechanism. Evolutionary Perspective • Infants’ attachment behaviors help them maintain proximity to caregivers for survival (e.g., feeding and protection). • Infants who could stay close to caregivers were more likely to survive and reproduce. Forming Attachments Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust Attachment Definition • A close bond with a caregiver that provides the infant a sense of security. • Foundations for future relationships, confidence, curiosity, and self-concept development. Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory • Freud believed infants are oral creatures who find pleasure in sucking and mouthing objects. • He proposed infants form attachments to the caregiver who provides oral satisfaction (typically the mother). • Freud emphasized that if the mother is relaxed and generous in feeding, the attachment bond would strengthen. Harlow's Research (1958) • Investigated attachment in monkeys using two surrogate mothers: o Wire Mother: Provided food but was made of cold metal. o Cloth Mother: No food, but provided warmth and comfort. • Results: Infant monkeys preferred the warm cloth mother over the wire mother. • Contact Comfort: The need for physical closeness and comfort is essential for attachment, not just food. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory • Erikson's theory includes eight stages, with each stage focusing on a specific psychosocial conflict. • The first stage, Trust vs. Mistrust, occurs in infancy and emphasizes the development of trust in caregivers. Goal of the Stage (Trust vs. Mistrust) • The primary goal of infancy is to develop a basic sense of trust in caregivers. • Infants rely on caregivers to meet physical needs (e.g., food, comfort, and stimulation). • A trusting relationship forms when caregivers consistently meet these needs. • Trust leads to the belief that the world is a reliable and predictable place. Caregiver’s Role • Caregivers should provide consistent comfort, contact, and stimulation. • Overindulging a child's need for comfort is not harmful; it helps build trust. Consequences of Mistrust • If trust is not established, mistrust can affect all aspects of a person's life, hindering future relationships. • Mistrust can lead to difficulties in forming love and bonds with others. 10 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Challenges in Building Trust • Unavailable caregivers or caregivers who are emotionally unprepared can harm trust development. • Premature, unwanted, or physically challenged children may experience difficulties in forming trust if caregivers are not responsive. • Under these circumstances, trust might not develop effectively, impacting the child's emotional and social growth. Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation Technique Mary Ainsworth’s Research • Ainsworth, a student of John Bowlby, studied attachment in infants and developed a lab procedure called the Strange Situation Technique to assess attachment styles. • The procedure lasts about 20 minutes and involves the infant, caregiver, and a stranger in a room with toys. • It focuses on how the child reacts to the departure and return of the caregiver. Procedure Steps • Infant and caregiver are left alone, infant explores toys. • A stranger enters and interacts briefly with the caregiver. • Caregiver leaves, and the stranger stays with the infant. • Caregiver returns, and the stranger leaves. • Child’s reactions are recorded and analyzed. Attachment Styles (Based on Reactions) • Secure Attachment: o Child explores freely, plays with toys, and occasionally shows toys to the caregiver. o Upset when the caregiver leaves but happy upon their return. • Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment: o Child is wary and clings to caregiver, avoiding exploration. o Extremely distressed when caregiver leaves and ambivalent when they return (resistant to comfort). • Avoidant Attachment: o Child avoids or ignores the caregiver and shows little emotion when the caregiver leaves or returns. o Child doesn’t engage much with toys or stranger. • Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment: o Child shows inconsistent responses, such as crying but avoiding the caregiver or freezing when approached. o Seen in children of caregivers with unpredictable behavior or abuse. Prevalence of Attachment Styles (U.S.) • 65% of children are securely attached. • 20% show avoidant attachment. • 10-15% exhibit ambivalent attachment. • 5-10% show disorganized attachment. Cultural Differences • In Germany, insecure-avoidant attachment is more common (due to emphasis on independence). • In Japan, insecure-resistant attachment is more common (due to more caregiving involvement). • Secure attachment is still the most common across cultures. Caregiver Interactions and Attachment Formation • Secure Attachment: Formed when caregivers consistently meet the child’s physical and emotional needs. • Insecure Attachment: o Ambivalent Style: Caused by inconsistent caregiver responses, leading to anxiety and doubt. o Avoidant Style: Caused by caregivers who are emotionally unavailable, leading to the child becoming more independent and disengaged. o Disorganized Style: Results from inconsistent or confusing caregiver responses (e.g., abuse or mental health issues). Impact of Caregiver Consistency • High caregiver turnover in daycare or institutions can jeopardize attachment. • Children in orphanages with inadequate care may struggle to attach but can form attachments later in life with proper care. Social Deprivation and Attachment Issues • Failure to Thrive: Infants who don’t grow or gain weight due to neglect or poor caregiving. • Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD): Occurs in children with repeated caregiver changes, neglect, or institutionalized care. o RAD symptoms include inhibited behavior, lack of emotional responsiveness, and developmental delays. o Less than 10% of children with severe neglect develop RAD, with later care quality being critical. Resiliency in Children • Resiliency: The ability to overcome adversity and adapt well to challenges. • Certain factors, such as temperament and support from others, influence resiliency. 11 | H i k a m a c c h i LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Research shows that mothers trained to respond to their children's needs lead to higher rates of secure attachment in their babies. Erikson: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler Stage) • Benefits • Identifies developmental delays in very young children. • Provides insights for targeted early intervention strategies. • Can gather information even from non-verbal children. Stage o • • • • Occurs during toddler years, as children begin walking, talking, and exploring. o Focus shifts from trust (from infancy) to autonomy (independence). o Toddlers test limits by exploring what can be touched, said, or done. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Toddlers develop independence and self-confidence through exploration. Erikson believed that safe exploration helps toddlers build a sense of independence. Parenting Influence o Caregivers should allow toddlers to explore and learn on their own, within safe limits. o Overly anxious or controlling caregivers may make toddlers feel ashamed or doubtful of their abilities. o Healthy parenting involves keeping the child safe but encouraging independent exploration. Outcome o If toddlers are encouraged to explore, they develop self-esteem, confidence, and initiative. o If restricted too much, children may develop shame and doubt about their abilities. Measuring Infant Development: Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (Bayley-III) Purpose • Assesses development in infants and toddlers ages 1 to 42 months. • Helps identify developmental delays early on. Developmental Domains Assessed • Cognition: Mental processes like thinking and problem-solving. • Language: Communication skills, including speaking and understanding. • Social-Emotional: Interactions with others, emotional responses. • Motor: Physical skills like movement, coordination, and motor control. • Adaptive Behavior: Practical life skills and day-to-day functioning. 12 | H i k a m a c c h i