Cell Structure and Function: A Detailed Guide

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION all theory composed of calls ↳ all ↳ cells are basic units ↳ cells from organisms only are come of structure and preexisting when single-celled organisms when multicellular presence of ↳ = but do surface - area - to some vary small to increase so are cells allows small -s reproduce organisms grow many really calls are cells function organisms self-reproducing single cell - divides area organisms frog's egg enough to = certain tasks do to specialize and - into two new cells divide many in size surface are in 1 mm O ; adequate allow cells only 1 mm nutrient exchange some & to-volume ratio proteinanules Bolipa ~ cell envelope cell wall , and in bacteria glycokaly plasma membrane regulates ↳ can plasma membrane , X phospholipid = bilayer entrance form pouches attachement of lexit of substances in prokaryotes mesomers = (increase internal surface shape of cell contains , peptidoglycan - layer of polysaccharides lies outside of sell wall organized layer not easily washed off capsule = , complex molecule that in some bacteria = , ↳ not well ↳ protects organized easily washed off layer out helps bacteria avoid against drying = slime , , enables attachment to cytoplasm for peptide fragments (unique to bacterial contains amino disacharides and glycocalyx area enzymes cell wall-maintains ↳ well with proteins embedded ↳ - , system different surfaces semifluid solution plasma membrane host's immune made up of water and (in) organic molecules , contained in don't have membrane-bound nucleus prokaryotes prokaryotes D NA = -" single plasmids eukaryotes , coiled multiple an vector as to nucleoid DNA located in chromosomes and extrachromosomal can be used > - = transport pices of circular bacteria DNA into chromosomes PROKARYOTIC CELLS prokaryotic ↳ pro- before : ↳ cells that don't have to en : nucleus = true to nucleus cells that have Eukarya prokaryotes eukaryotes spirillum most abundand/diverse are but immense metabolic lifeforms A ↳ - ; capabilities average spiroche rod bacillus of size shaped ↳ rods can structurally rigid ↳ both forms proteins can encoded synthesized on in occur pairs can cells : . . bacterium = 2 0-6 0 bacterium lay in m . spirals , also . Spiralla flexible spirals = Earth on x than bacillus be twisted into spirals = = spirochetes coccus clusters) M conjugation pilus elongated hollow appendage , are ribosomes used to transfer DNA to other cells ..... ribosome ~ · thousands of ribosomes in - DNA by prokaryotic (cocci complicated among first 1 1-1 5 Mm prokaryotes spherical-shaped chains or less were COCCUS ↳ membrane bound and Archaea Bacteria eukaryotic Karyon-cell , smaller than in similar in prokaryotic eukaryotic and shape cells cells but , fimbriae hairlike bristles that allow adhesion to surfaces cytoplasm Semifluid solution surrounded by the plasma membrane ; nucleoid location of the bacterial chromosome function sheet that surrounds the some proteins carry (ingest photosynthesis animals out ↳ ↳s are some of the organisms) like plants , thylakoids Chlorophyll like cytoplasm and regulates entrance other contain where out metabolism = , e others carry g cyanobacteria . . internal membranes absorbs solar earliest energy photosynthesizers - and exit of molecules cell wall provides support and shapes the cell structure that flagellum rotating filament propels the cell - that g el-like coating outside the cell wall external structures flagella ↳ ↳ ↳ ↳ = occur on nucleus , organelles like (mitochondria, - endoplasmatic chloroplasts) hypothesis surrounded resicle , inner all over it cell to surfaces , not motion to cell in pass DNA from cell prokaryotes reticulum might have membrane Golgi and apparatus) bigger eukaryotes evolved when absorbed ones contain of + build acrobic dependency heterotrophic similar to bacteria bacteria , chloroplasts from cyanobacteria (size structure) , double membrane Counter membrane by membrane of have their Mitochondria can : from plasma energy organelles within from mitochondria came organelles like sometimes to attach tubular structures Mitochondria-chloroplasts the , = evidence for this ↳ ends of cell 360 prokaryotes-rotate prokaryotes endosymbiotic theory maybe ↳ motion , in fibers used amoeba infected with bacteria ↳ body , , of protein , energy organelles ↳ of filament hook basal them prokaryotes eukaryotes evolved from probably evolved through invagination of plasma cells were smaller both small , bristlelike , made out pili- hooked into cell wall and membrane = Calso explains ↳ , lings body-series of flagella eukaryotes whip like sometimes conjugation fimbriac and of conjugation pili-rigid first , water ; made up used for motion in = fimbrial ↳ ↳ flagella basal i can ↳ ↳ like own may come from original prokaryote) ribosomes and produce chloroplasts produced some by eukaryotic host) , engulfing proteins (most proteins ribosomes resemble prokaryotes limited amount of genetic material , devide by splitting (their DNA is circular loop , prokaryotes EUKARYOTIC CELLS eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells both have plasma membranc ↳ separates inside of cell from environment , ↳ is a phospholipid eukaryotic ↳ this to cells bilayer with embedded have a nucleus and membrane also contains organelle regulates passage proteins internal membrane-bound proteins , of moucules most are enzymes = compartments that make organelles products specific · ·· Nucleus :c ommand > - center ofa Nucleus : Nuclear envelope > - membrane with nuclear pores > - of cell center of ce DNA and protein or C · I organelles n ER : She : studded with proteins Protein Centrosome : synthesizes lipid molecules ↓ (not found organizing : in Peroxisome resce short I tha fatty plant cells) ER : stl , acid metabolism Ribosomcars center that C r set Centrioles ⑳ I ⑭ - S that contains cells have same more/fewer copies of specific molecules ↳ * . used g . resides , are Cell wall Supports and protects cell inside produced or on surface of vesicles in Cytoskeleton around in ↳ also enables movement act as eukaryotic cells : outer surface that entrance shapes , , may miss structures or = organelles to membranous sacs , by have membrane for tracks of = network of protein enzymes enclose molecules communication tool between endoplasmic reticulum and as more thSemiti matrixosee a Cytoplas nucleus organelles some protein fibers ↳ cytoplasm and regulates and exit of molecules specialized cells composition ↳ some shape ↑ lasma membrane : surrounds packages , and secretes modified proteins modified proteins products transported around cell e r organelles and secretes not all cells) cell - S , Producing ATP molecules , pressure in animal adjacent & and Mitochondrion :organelaspiration matrix outside nucleus large fluid-filled turgor (notfound 1 S sis : stores metabolites and helps maintain Cell wall of D ⑨ · ·t Smooth ER : lacks ribosomes , Central vacuole S a c that S 9 IC n · pores that encloses nucleus Chromatin : diffuse threads containing parts com mand Nuclear envelope : double membrane with nuC lear that encloses nucleus fibers (also golgi apparatus maintains cell shape vesicles organelles , (plants fungi , protists) have additional cell wall plant cell wall contains cellulose NUCLEUS AND RIBOSOMES for eukaryotic cells that is ↳ DNA passed on to contains cells can interior contains next generation 5m D oval , have more nucleoplasm = , located than grainy appearance rod like structures = , to contains genetic information - near one carry out metabolic activities center nucleus (protein synthesis) in most cells (e g . - Skeletal muscle cells) semifluid matrix nucleus also contains chromatin ↳ life and function of cells information for ribosomes nucleus is about ↳ some nucleus is essential for is a network chromosomes combination of proteins and nucleic acids of strands before they condense and coil into (carry genetic information organized in genes all ↳ types ↳ and sperm egg proteins Messenger ↳ to big enough protein DNA (not mobile polypeptide recognizes and synthesis protein nuclear cytoplasm pores Synthesis proteins in happens ribosomal subunit (each made up of a mix of large MRNA proteins eukaryotes (in prokaryotes smaller) ribosomes in cell varies depending on in of more eukaryotic cells ↳ either single in or gene proteins in lay freely information is copied peptide receptor on a ER ribosomes in ER when mRNA goes through mRNA (carries coded message from particular protein attached ribosomes = ribosomes bind to that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) into synthesized byCytoplasmic synthesized by function (structures = cytoplasm -libosomes receive right amino acid Sequence for proteins have more its cytoplasm groups polyribosomes ribosomes others attached to in nucleus to for let ribosomal subunits and mRNA out and particles where nm number signal of chromatin , where URNA connects amino acids into cytoplasm through with contain/produce ↳ region rRNA) ↳ 20-30 ↳ intermediary helps assemble during consists of small and (dark double membrane that separates nucleus from = ↳ Communication ribosomes = : in nucleolus mobile - -> and amino acids ↳ are in nucleus produced (mRNA) envelope have half amount and forms subunits of ribosomes transfer (tRNA) nuclear , produced RNA of ribosomal (rRNA) with ↳ : number of chromosomes contain same organism exception three ↳ of cells protein sequence of go ribosomes to nuclear pores = used in ER being synthesized by amino acids , binds a DNA , into indicating Cytoplasm them starts with particle which then binds protein once enters inside ER- folds process of DNA ↳ into being final shape endoplasmic reticulum ↳o ↳ = ↳ on (faces inside of lumen proteins , and > - form for Golgi ↳ of (trans face/outer ↳ vesides inner face lie on receives ↳ substances are enzymes modify that one faces cells determine ER , no attached on organ function , cells have proteins that rough and Smooth ER form vesicles transport slightly ER discovered it in , different (especially Golgi apparatus parts of cell Golgi molecules to 1898 curved flattened saccules , (cis face/inner face) other , side faces plasma membrane face) edges of saccules protein-filled altered as resides (from into another modified rough they move through modifyCarbohydrate sugar ↳ sometimes rough less smooth ER functions stack of 3-20 side depending both , add named after Camillo = apparatus one chains to cell connects to more or glycoproteins (important many consists of ↳ can that can enzymes carbohydrate envelope 3D-shape assume contains biology ribosomes produce proteins can morecular ER Smooth Cytoplasm) of ER ER fold protein happens of membranous channels system connected to nuclear rough exterior side of membrane dogma is universal-central > - up of smooth ER and studded with ribosomes ↳ on mRNA , then translated into of complicated consists = (flattened vesicles) and saccules rough and protein ends up there transcribed into DNA-mRNA-protein sequence is made peptide signal of cuts enzyme cells living in all ER , sugar chains on Carbohydrate ER) lipid-filled and saccules , e . resides (from g. Golgi apparatus first attacked to proteins in Smooth contains rough ER and can glycoproteins chain protein's final destination in can all act as signal moucule , can ER Golgi apparatus outer face ↳ vesicles bring some vesides their contents lysosomes ↳ have ↳ = modified molecules puts sorts , molecules outside of proceed or very pH - marge and empty produced in Golgi apparatus material taken into cell , in an inactive state nonfunctional destroy organelles and cyotoplasm autophagy portions of materials can membrane hydrolytic-digestive enzymes and store digesting assist in plasma (exocytosis cell membrane-bound vesides low to depart from within cell different locations to ER return can to in Vesicles that them = be taken into cell by vesicles or through vacuole formation at plasma membrane ↳ lysosomes ↳ blood cells have with either subunits that simpler white fuse can exported engulf pathogens lysosomes more are than other cells ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM system-series through vesicles endomembrane communicate endoplasmic lysosomes organelles in system rough modified there which are then broken down in rfunction is digestion of foreign lysosomes substances of membranous golgi organelles apparatus are that work basically together, flattened saccules , resides specialized interact because membranes membrane-associated products of into activate , SUMMARY reticulum (ER) and are digest material into cytoplasm (recycled by other cell processes lysosomal enzymes - proteins and Smooth readily fuse enable communication and ER transported to Golgi together and because specialized functions apparatus in vesicles and through signaling e . sequences Secretion into ducts in g . in animal cells mammary glands apparatus produces lysosomes fuse enzymes -o taken Golgi molecular address and with vesicles pancreas or eukaryotic from plasma membrane , cells AND VACHOLES contain many resides that contain membrane-bound perform specific metabolic functions-microbodies (e vacuoles contain also (large storage membrane-bound resides that contain fatty acids enzymes lysosomes are synthesized by of enzymes oxidize peroxisomes peroxisomes ↳ occur disease ↳o also also converted to O , contain and . peroxisome g used to break down Catalase in cells that acids sugars in releases CO2 in metabolic (ALD) caused enzyme and /or accumulate in into , enzymes in peroxisome from breaks down H202 to cytoplasm Hz and 02 functions and break down by lack of a lipids membrane , e . g . liver protein in peroxisomes long-chain fatty acids from cytoplasm brain cause neurological damage , boxidize - germinating out reaction that is apparatus transported (enzyme that synthesize have peroxisomes by Golgi produce H20c-o toxic organelles import specific carry enzymes free ribosomes and acids and assist other long-chain fatty can areas loaded into vesicle adrenoleukodystrophy plant calls ↳ fatty especially needed to . to enzymes peroxisomes = peroxisomes ↳ hydrolytic digest macromolecules that contain stored lysosomes into cell MICROBODIES ↳ by exocytosis - exit all labels fatty-acids into molecules that can be seeds opposite to photosynthesis in leaves - reaction uses vacuoles ↳ in membranous = protists water ; usually ↳ e . g. digestive vacuoles store substances ; not cells contain fat and pigments functions ↳ toxic in metabolic nutrients) organelles age down cells contain lipid-filled - vacuole contain water , , get rid of excess vacuoles (takes up sugars , of cell) majority salts , water-soluble (protect plant from predators) waste products across vacuole membrane , stored vacuole = rapidly cell can break them , products pumped sap) (cell when very big Contractile vacuoles central vacuole that takes cells have plant . g animal of nutrients and waste watery fluid turgor pressure) ↳ many molecules in . break down plant function storage permanently plant , (e vesicles than bigger but , specialized are some vacuoles essential to = sacs (just 90 % of cell volume , provides extra support increase in size lose function and up like lysosomes to all by enlarging fuse with in animal cells) they (maintains filled with hydrostatic or vacuole vacuole - digestive enzymes ENERGY-RELATED ORGANELLES life energy necessary eukaryotic membranous organelles that specialize in converting energy Cell can use ↳ cellular produce photosynthesis form that plants) energy (plants to and animal respiration ATP synthesize carbohydrates = cells) break down = organic molecules carbohydrate-derived products is : + + , chloroplasts to (energy energy CO2 H20 -Carbohydrate 02 plants algae Cyanobacteria can conduct photosynthesis (only solar ↳ (only solar Mitochondria ↳ to : Chloroplasts ↳ use ↳ to maintain input of constant + - , because they are eukaryotes the first two have cellular carbohydrate ↳ ATP is respiration 0. + - + : CO2 + ATP (energy) synthetic drive used to energy H20 + reactions , active transport processes in cells , energy-requiring Outer membrane double strom ama - hyamembrane & * algal some - some - plant cells have cells have only up to chloroplast, one hundred a & & S S have ↳ three-membrane surrounded by Stroma-semifluid thy lakoids stack of mitochondria than bigger system region disclike together stroma ↳ = way double membrane , includes outer and inner membrane ↳ ↳ chloroplasts , sacs enclosed , double membrane by formed from third chloroplast membrane ; found in with enzymes thylakoid granum thylakoids forms thylakoid = /large internal compartment) solar Chlorophyll (and other energy) is located in pigments that capture thylakoid membrane enzymes that synthesize carbohydrates located in ↳ lumen of space , , stroma fluid might have been derived from photosynthetic by eukaryotic cell-endosymbiotic theory chloroplasts ↳ would ↳ explain chloroplasts own are surrounded by prokaryotic-type supports enzymes theory have their own engulfed double membrane chromosome/ribosomes produce their , = chloroplast is a type are ↳ chromoplasts plant of plastid organelles ↳ ↳ why they bacterium leucoplasts contain are surrounded by double membrane , have various functions pigment Cresult colorless , synthesize in different colors of leafs , flowers fruits and store starches loils (e , g potatoes . . , etc . ) mitochondria cells contain most ↳ number varies activities and Mitochondria depending energy needed change can metabolic on by shape , cell also can form long moving chains or stay fixed in one spot Jusually stay where energy is needed most) , ↳ e . have two ↳ inner membrane > contractile elements of Cardiac cells , = convoluted into folds (Cristae) highly mitochondrial contains DNA > - project into semifluid and ribosomes cristal increase surface area of inner membrane ↳ outer within membrane energy entire ATP = ↳ common factor produce and damage - toxins on nutrient molecules entymes - supply chemical inner membrane to create conditions respiration the cell /produce most of ATP used in cell) affect Mitochondria = ATP can and other possible cellular powerhouse of mitochondrial diseases concentrated mixture of of proteins Synthesis process mitochondria = highly carbohydrates needed for chain that make ↳ Mitochondria matrix of break down to I membranes Matrix ↳ between packed g. · 7 in body many systems is unable to completely metabolize organic accumulate inside Mitochondria and mitochondria over time body (e molecules . . fre g radicals CYTOSKELETON Cytoskeleton ↳ in ↳ comparable provides structural support eukaryotic to cell cells protein components extend from nucleus to plasma membrane to bones and muscle of animal , but is components to respond to changes dynamic of environment - I can rearrange protein components major filaments actin ↳ build , complex a ↳ can sometimes . Chooked membrane in bundles to membrane support themselves and rearrange lay , help with cellular movement , pseudopods chloroplasts wich circulate = filament each actin filaments actin plasma by amozba cytoplasmic streaming by forming tracks along ↳ enable can structural - (-7nmb) and flexible fibers dense web under , movement with g . thin long very = special proteins) by e : globular two chains of actin interact with motor molecules can (twisted like helix monomers (proteins that can along actin filament) and organelle possible attach/detach/reattach farther ↳ makes ↳ motor movement molecule myosin ↳ in nonmuscle cells ↳ in ↳ are skin : made x-tubulin when > - = 8-11 hm each other to , assembly envelope , type depends polypeptides & specific filament others of fibrous support plasma keratin up of small , give mechanical disassemble when membrane hollow Cylinders strength phosphate (25 nm X , on tissue (participate in to skin Cells is added to them 0 2-25 m . globular protein called tubulin slightly different amino acid sequence they arrange ↳ 13 pinch off cells from myosin length) , by made kinase up of of ↳ ↳ = nuclear highly dynamic types and tail function formation microtubules two has head multiple actin and form rope like support cell-to-cell filaments ; ones generally ↳ some actin , intermediate filaments but pull myosin molecules join to form thick filament cytoplasmic myosin tails bound to membranes heads still animal cell division two new ATP to actin interact with form uses : muscle cells tails of ↳ in during of cell rows assemble : x- themselves in of tubulin B-tubulin and than molecules B-tubulin come together as rows dimers , surrounding empty central core dimer (MTOC) regulates microtubule assembly located in antrosome near nucleus (in most eukaryotic cells) radiate from Centrosome-support shape of cell act as tracks wich organelles along microtubule- center organizing - a , can moved be microtubules ↳ different or ↳ cooperate motor molecules kinesin and of Kinesin proteins (each specialized types organelle Kinesin with vesicles/organelles moves in cytoplasmic dynein closely closely ↳ distributes chromosomes ↳ spindle disassembles and microtubules centrioles ↳ a = in animal Cylinders with 9t0 in an triplets arranged cells (and most right angles may organizes to each other basal ring (center empty , then more each apart fungal cells body= structure fora assembly/disassembly pair -> becomes during of microtubules of each pair members - organize mitotic ↳ for have , centrosome-equivalent that lies at base cilium/flagellum centrioles give , bodies spindle of Cilia don't have centriole and what centrosome does rise to basal right angles pair of centrioles flagella microtubules within them ↳ does at at pair of separate chromosome cell division cell has own centrosome and plant and spindle, before cell divides centrosome contains two centrioles that lie at centrioles replicate before cell divides each new dynein flagella reassemble when cell division is done outer outer microtubules also be involved in centrosomes in to each other ↳ centrosome ↳ protists) ofreside pattern of microtubule triplets short of sats dynein disassemble and reassemble into structure called microtubules type opposite direction from related to ↳ dynein to more one for cell , directs organization of cilia and flagella can more free cells hairlike upper respiratory projections liquid through is attached to other if cell cells tract have , , e . , . g can more like a Sperm cells cilia/flagella can more whip more liquid or with over are ↳ each much shorter than cell (e g . cells of two central microtubules a + 2 pattern of microtubules cilium/flagellum . oar) , , = = stiffly (like flagella cilia flagella but similar structure both membrane-bound Cylinders enclosing matrix Matrix a pairs of microtubules arranged in circle around cilia ↳ = has basal body lying in cytoplasm at its base