Tripken: Vision & Light Energy

Tripken 5 / 6 Study Guide Questions Sensation: The process by which sensory receptors (in eye, ear, etc.) receive and are stimulated by stimulus energies from the environment. Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. ● Bottom-up-processing: Analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's processing of the information. ● Top-down-processing: Information processing guided by higher-level processes, such as our expectations. Absolute Threshold: The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. Signal Detection Theory: Predicts how and when we detect faint stimuli (dependent on experience, expectations, motivation & fatigue.) Subliminal Stimulation: Stimulation below one's threshold of conscious awareness. Research reveals a subtle, fleeting effect on thinking, but no effect on behavior. Difference Threshold: The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. It is also called the just noticeable difference or JND. It is based on Weber's Law: The difference threshold is in proportion to the strength of the original stimulus. Sensory Adaptation: Our diminishing sensitivity to unchanging stimuli (loud music becomes unnoticeable after several hours…cold water gets warmer the longer you are in it!) Selective Attention: The focusing of attention on specific stimuli, while ignoring other stimuli (e.g., the cocktail party effect). Transduction: The transforming of stimulus energies (i.e., light waves, sound waves) into neural impulses. VISION & LIGHT ENERGY Wavelength: Distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the next. Wavelength determines HUE or color in vision and Pitch in audition. Shorter wavelengths are bluish in color, while longer wavelengths are reddish. Amplitude: The height of a light or sound wave. It determines brightness in vision and loudness in hearing. THE EYE Light waves stimulate rods & cones which synapse to bipolar cells, which synapse to ganglion cells. The axons of the ganglion cells come together to form the Optic nerves which transmit visual information to the brain. Blindspot: The area in the retina where the optic nerve leaves the back of eye. No rods or cones are located there, so no vision is possible at that location. Feature Detectors: Nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of a visual stimulus, such as Page 1 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide shape, angle, or movement. Parallel Processing: The ability of the brain to process several aspect of a situation simultaneously. COLOR VISION Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory: The theory that the retina contains three different types of cones--one most sensitive to red, one to blue, and one to green--which when stimulated in combination can produce any color. RED, GREEN, & BLUE are the PRIMARY COLORS OF LIGHT WAVES. Opponent Process Theory: Theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, & black-white) enable color vision. For example some cells are stimulated by red while inhibited by green; others are stimulated by yellow, while inhibited by blue. This helps explain afterimages. Color constancy: Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelength reflected by the object. AUDITION Audition: The sense of hearing. Type of Light Wavelengths Radio waves > 30 cm Microwaves 1 mm - 30 cm Infrared 700 nm - 1 mm Visible light 350 nm - 700 nm Ultraviolet 10 nm - 350 nm X-rays 0.01 nm - 10 nm Gamma rays < 0.01 nm 2 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide Frequency: The number of complete wavelengths in a given period of time. Frequency determines pitch. Amplitude: Height of each wavelength--determines loudness. Sound Localization: Sound waves strike one ear sooner and with more intensity than the other ear. With this information, the brain can determine the location of the sound. Middle Ear: Chamber between the eardrum and the oval window which contains the ossicles (three tiny bones--hammer, anvil, & stirrup) which concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum. Inner Ear: Contains the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. ● Cochlea: a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses. ● Basilar Membrane: Membrane along the center of the cochlea that contains hair cells (the receptor cells for sound). Axons from the hair cells for the Auditory Nerves, which transmit neural impulses to the brain. PITCH PERCEPTION ● Place Theory: Theory that the pitch we hear is associated with the place where the basilar membrane is stimulated. Best for explaining high-pitched tones. ● Frequency Theory: Theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of the tone we are hearing. Best for explaining low-pitched tones. ● Volley Principle: Helps explain in frequency theory how we can hear sounds with a frequency greater than 1000 cycles per second. While some neurons are "recharging" during the refractory period (do you know what this means?), others are firing. 3 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide Conduction Deafness: Caused by damage to the structures that conduct soundwaves through the ear (eardrum, ossicles). Nerve Deafness: Caused by damage to the cochlea's hair cells or the auditory nerve. TOUCH Touch or tactile sense involves a mixture of at least 4 distinct skin senses--pressure, warmth, cold, and pain. Only pressure has identifiable sense receptors. COLD + PRESSURE = WETNESS COLD + WARMTH = HOT PAIN Gate-Control-Theory: Theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass. The gate is opened by stimulation of small nerve fibers and closed by stimulation of larger fiber or by information coming from the brain TASTE Taste is the Gustatory Sense. ● Taste is a CHEMICAL SENSE and consists of the four basic tastes of sweet, sour, bitter, & salty. There may also be a 5th sense called "umami" or a meaty taste. Each bump on the tongue contains over 200 taste buds. ● Each bud contains a pore that captures food molecules. ● The molecules cause hair-like neurons within the pores to fire. ● Taste Buds reproduce themselves every 2-3 weeks. Sensory Interaction: The principle that one sense may be influenced by another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. SMELL Smell is the Olfactory Sense. Smell is also a CHEMICAL SENSE. Very little is known about the olfactory sense. However, we are able to detect about 10,000 different odors. Smells are processed in the temporal lobes of the brain and in the LIMBIC SYSTEM, which may explain why certain smells seem to have an emotional component and can trigger memories. Molecules in the air reach millions of receptor cells in each nasal cavity. These cells send messages to the olfactory bulb and the olfactory nerve which transmits the messages to the brain. 4 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide BODY POSITION & MOVEMENT Kinesthesis: The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. The receptor cells for kinesthesis are found in our muscles, tendons, & joints. Vestibular Sense: The system that monitors the head's (and thus the body's) position and movement. ▪ It is our sense of equilibrium. The semicircular canals and vestibular sacs in the inner ear contain receptors that tell us about our head's position. The Eye returns!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Pupil: Adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light passes. Iris: A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored part of the eye. It controls the size of the pupil Lens: The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape (called accommodation) to help focus images on the retina. Visual Acuity: The sharpness of vision. Nearsightedness: Can see nearby objects more clearly because distant object focus in front of the retina (eyeball may be too long). Farsightedness: Can see distant objects more clearly because nearby objects focus behind the retina (eyeball may be too short). Rods & Cones: The receptor cells for vision. Receptor cells are specialized neurons designed, in this case, to transduce light energy into neural impulses. ● Rods: detect black, white, & grey. ● Found mainly in the periphery of the retina. ● More than one rod connects to each bipolar cell. ● Thus, less light energy is necessary for them to cause the bipolar cells to fire. ● Necessary for NIGHT VISION & PERIPHERAL VISION. Cones: Found mainly in the center (fovea) of the retina. Necessary for COLOR VISION and VISUAL ACUITY. 5 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. Perceptual Organization Figure-ground Relationship: Our ability to perceive any object (the figure) as distinct from its surroundings (the ground). Visual Capture: The tendency for vision to dominate the other senses when conflicting information is being received. Gestalt Grouping Principles Gestalt Organizational Principles: Gestalt psychologists emphasize our tendency to integrate individual pieces of information into a meaningful whole. To bring order and form to basic visual sensations, our brains follow certain rules for grouping stimuli together. 1. Proximity: We group nearby objects and belonging together. 2. Similarity: Figures similar to each other (i.e., as in shape or color) are groups together. 3. Continuity: We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones. 4. Connectedness: When the are uniform and linked, we perceive spots, lines, or areas as single units. 5. Closure: We fill in gaps to create complete, whole objects. Depth Perception Visual Cliff: A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants. Even when coaxed, infants are reluctant to venture onto the glass over the cliff. Binocular Cues: Depth cues that depend on the use of both of our eyes. 1. Retinal Disparity: By comparing the two slightly different images received on each retina, the brain computes the distance of what we are looking at. The greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. 2. Convergence: The extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object. The greater the convergence, the closer the object. Monocular Cues: Distance cues that require the use of one eye only. 1. Relative Size: If we assume two objects are about the same size, the one that casts the smaller retinal image is perceived as being farther away. 2. Interposition (Overlap): If one object partially blocks another, the one that is partially blocked is perceived to be farther away. 3. Relative Clarity: Because light from distant objects must pass through more atmosphere, we perceive hazy object as being farther away than clear, distinct objects. 4. Texture Gradient: A gradual change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance. 6 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide 5. Relative Height: We perceive objects higher in our visual field as being further away. 6. Linear Perspective: Parallel lines (such as railroad tracks) appear further away as they converge in the distance. 7. Light & Shadow (relative brightness): Nearby objects reflect more light. Thus, given two identical objects, the dimmer one seems further away. 8. Relative Motion (motion parallax): If while riding in a train you fix your gaze on some object (the fixation point), objects closer than the fixation point appear to be moving backward. The nearer an object is the faster it seems to move. Objects behind the fixation point appear to be moving with you: The farther away the object is from the fixation point, the more slowly it appears to move. Motion Perception One way we perceive motion is by knowing that if an object keeps getting bigger, it is probably moving towards us. If an object is shrinking, it is moving away from us. Phi Phenomenon: When two or more adjacent stationary lights blink on and off in quick succession, we perceive a single light moving. (Lighted signs use this phenomenon). Stroboscopic Movement: The brain will interpret a rapid series of slightly varying images as continuous movement. By flashing 24 still pictures each second, a motion picture creates perceived movement. Perceptual Constancies Perceiving objects as unchanging (having constant lightness, color, shape, and size) even when our retinal images of them change. For example: Shape Constancy: We perceive the form of familiar objects as constant even when our retinal images of them change. Size Constancy: We perceive familiar objects to maintain a constant size even when their distance from us changes. Lightness Constancy: We perceive an object as having a constant lightness even when its illumination varies. Similarly, Blakemore & Cooper found that kittens whose vision was restricted to only seeing vertical lines during a critical period of development, later could not see horizontal lines. Perceptual Adaptation: In vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. Perceptual Set: A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another (e.g., seeing the Lock Ness Monster instead of a piece of driftwood because of your beliefs). Context Effects: Any given stimulus may trigger radically different perceptions depending on the surrounding environment or circumstances. Culture may have a great impact on context and perception. Human Factors Psychology: A branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be adapted to human behaviors. 7 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide Extrasensory Perception (ESP) The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Telepathy: Mind to mind communication Clairvoyance: The sensing of remote events that are presently occurring. Precognition: The sensing of future events. Telekinesis (psychokinesis): Ability to affect objects with the power of the mind. Parapsychologists: Psychologists who study paranormal occurrences, including claims of ESP. ADDITIOAL NOTES AND SOME ARE REDUNDENT!! SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Sensation -Experience of sensory stimulation, the activation or our senses Perception -Process of creating meaningful patterns from raw sensory information VISION Vision is the dominant sense in human beings. Sighted people use vision to gather information about their environment more than any other sense. The process of vision involves several steps. Step 1: Gathering light Step 2: Within the eye Cornea -The transparent protective coating over the front part of the eye Pupil -small opening in the iris through which light enters the eye. Iris -colored part of the eye. Lens -transparent part of the eye inside the pupil that focuses light onto the retina Retina -lining of the eye containing receptor cells that are sensitive to light Step 3: Transduction Transduction –process by which sensory signals are transformed into neural impulses Receptor cell -Specialized cell that responds to a particular type of energy. Rods -Receptor cells in the retina responsible for night vision and perception of brightness. Cones -Receptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision Fovea -Area of the retina that is the center of the visual field Optic nerve - The bundle of axons of ganglion cells that carries neural messages from each eye to the brain. Blind spot - Place on the retina where the axons of all the ganglion cells leave the eye and where there are no receptors Optic chiasm -Point near the base of the brain where some fibers in the optic nerve from each eye cross to the other side of the brain Step 4: In the Brain - Theories or color vision- 8 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide Trichromatic theory -Theory of color vision that holds that all color perception derives from three different color receptors in the retina Opponent-process theory - Theory of color vision that holds that three sets of color receptors respond in an either/or fashion to determine the color you experience Colorblindness -Partial or total inability to perceive hues. Trichromats -People who have normal color vision Monochromats -People who are totally color blind Dichromats - People who are blind to either red-green or yellow-blue HEARING The ears contain structures for both the sense of hearing and the sense of balance. The eighth cranial nerve (vestibulocochlear nerve made up of the auditory and vestibular nerves) carries nerve impulses for both hearing and balance from the ear to the brain. Amplitude – the height of the wave , determines the loudness of the sound, measured in decibels Frequency - The number of cycles per second in a wave; in sound, the primary determinant of pitch Hertz (Hz) - Cycles per second; unit of measurement for the frequency of waves Pitch - Auditory experience corresponding primarily to frequency of sound vibrations, resulting in a higher or lower tone Decibel -The magnitude of a wave; in sound the primary determinant of loudness of sounds Parts of the ear Ear canal – also called the auditory canal Eardrum Hammer, anvil, stirrup - The three small bones in the middle ear that relay vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear Cochlea - Part of the inner ear containing fluid that vibrates which in turn causes the basilar membrane to vibrate. Basilar membrane -Vibrating membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear; it contains sense receptors for sound Auditory nerve -The bundle of neurons that carries signals from each ear to the brain PITCH THEORIES- As with color vision, two different theories describe the two processes involved in hearing pitch: place theory and frequency theory. Place theory -Theory that pitch is determined by the location of greatest vibration of the basilar membrane Frequency theory -Theory that pitch is determined by the frequency wigh which hair cells in the cochlea fire DEAFNESS - Hearing Loss - People can lose all or some of their ability to hear because of loud noises, infections, head injuries, brain damage and genetic diseases. Hearing loss is common in older people. There are several types of hearing loss: 9 Tripken ● ● ● ● 5/6 Study Guide Conductive Hearing Loss: occurs when sound vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear are blocked. This may be caused by ear wax in the auditory canal, fluid buildup in the middle ear, ear infections or abnormal bone growth. Sensorineural Hearing Loss: occurs when there is damage to the vestibulocochlear (auditory) nerve. This type of hearing loss may be caused by head injury, birth defects, high blood pressure or stroke. Presbycusis: occurs because of changes in the inner ear. This is a very common type of hearing loss that happens gradually in older age. Tinnitus: people with tinnitus hear a constant ringing or roaring sound. The cause of this ringing cannot always be found. Some cases of tinnitus are caused by ear wax, ear infections or a reaction to antibiotics, but there are many other possible causes of this disorder. TOUCH When our skin is indented, pierced, or experiences a change in temperature, our sense of touch is activated by this energy. Gate control theory - Theory that a ‘neurological gate in the spinal cord controls the transmission of pain messages to the brain CHEMICAL SENSES - TASTE (GUSTATION) and smell Taste buds = Papillae Humans sense four different tastes: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter All other tastes come from a combination of these four basic tastes. Actually, a fifth basic taste called "Umami" has recently been discovered. Umami is a taste that occurs when foods with glutamate (like MSG) are eaten. Different parts of the tongue can detect all types of tastes. Morever, the simple tongue "taste map" that is found in many textbooks has been criticized for several reasons. The actual organ of taste is called the "taste bud". Each taste bud (and there about about 10,000 taste buds in humans) is made up of many (between 50-150) receptor cells. Receptor cells live for only 1 to 2 weeks and then are replaced by new receptor cells. Each receptor in a taste bud responds best to one of the basic tastes. A receptor can respond to the other tastes, but it responds strongest to a particular taste. SMELL (OLFACTION) The Nose Knows The smells of a rose, perfume, freshly baked bread and cookies...these smells are all made possible because of your nose and brain. The sense of smell, called olfaction, involves the detection and perception of chemicals floating in the air. Chemical molecules enter the nose and dissolve in mucous within a membrane called the olfactory epithelium. In humans, the olfactory epithelium is located about 7 cm up and into the nose from the nostrils. Olfactory epithelium - Nasal membranes containing receptor cells sensitive to odors Pheromone - Chemical that communicates information to other organisms through smell…THIS IS ACTUALLY WHAT WE “SMELL” BEFORE we translate the smell based on experience, etc 10 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide VESTIBULAR SENSE – tells us about how our body is oriented in space. Semicircular canals - Structure in the inner ear particularly sensitive to body rotation. Vestibular sacs - Sacs in the inner ear that are responsible for sensing gravitation and forward, backward, and vertical movement KINESTHETIC SENSES -Senses of forces and movement of muscles Stretch receptors -Receptors that sense muscle stretch and contraction PERCEPTION THRESHOLDS Absolute threshold -The least amount of energy that can be detected as a stimulation 50 percent of the time Subliminal- stimuli below our absolute threshold Difference threshold -The smallest change in stimulation that can be detected 50 percent of the time just-noticeable difference / JND – the smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we detect a change Weber’s Law -The principle that the just noticeable difference for any given sense is a constant proportion of the stimulation being judged. PERCEPTUAL THEORIES - Psychologists use several theories to describe how we perceive the world. Signal detection theory- investigates the effects of the distractions and interference we experience while perceiving the world. Top-Down Processing – we perceive by filling in gaps in what we sense Bottom-up Processing, also called feature analysis – we use only the features of the object itself to build a complete perception GESTALT RULES Proximity Similarity Continuity Closure CONSTANCY- Tendency to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite changes in sensory stimulation Size constancy - Perception of an object as the same size regardless of the distance from which it is viewed Shape constancy - Tendency to see an object as the same shape no matter what angle it is viewed from Brightness constancy - Perception of brightness as the same, even though the amount of light reaching the retina changes DEPTH CUES Visual cliff experiment- remember? Monocular cues - Visual cues requiring the use of one eye 11 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide Interposition - Monocular distance cue in which one object, by partly blocking a second object, is perceived as being closer. Linear perspective - Monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that two parallel lines seem to come together at the horizon Relative size-Monocular cue in which closer objects seem larger than distant objects Texture gradient-Course objects appear closer than smooth objects Shadowing- Binocular cues - Visual cues requiring the use of both eyes Retinal disparity - Binocular distance cue based on the difference between the images Convergence- cast on the two retinas when both eyes are focused on the same object Stereoscopic vision - Combination of two retinal images to give a three-dimensional perceptual experience. Question 1-60 are sensation based questions ___ 1. Superman's eyes used ________, while his brain used ________. A) perception; sensation C) bottom-up processing; top-down processing B) top-down processing; bottom-up processing D) sensory adaptation; subliminal perception ___ 2. Sensation is to ________ as perception is to ________. A recognizing a stimulus; interpreting a stimulus C interpreting a stimulus; detecting a stimulus B D seeing; hearing ) ) detecting a stimulus; recognizing a stimulus ) ) ___ 3. Given normal sensory ability, a person standing atop a mountain on a dark, clear night can see a candle flame atop a mountain 30 miles away. This is a description of vision's: A) difference threshold. B) jnd. C) absolute threshold. D) signal detection. ___ 4. Which of the following is true? A The absolute threshold for any stimulus is a constant. ) B ) The absolute threshold for any stimulus varies somewhat. C The absolute threshold is defined as the minimum amount of stimulation necessary for a stimulus to ) be detected 75 percent of the time. ) be detected 60 percent of the time. D The absolute threshold is defined as the minimum amount of stimulation necessary for a stimulus to ___ 5. Concerning the evidence for subliminal stimulation, which of the following is the best answer? A The brain processes some information without our awareness. ) B Stimuli too weak to cross our thresholds for awareness may trigger a response in our sense ) receptors. ) some of the time. C Because the “absolute” threshold is a statistical average, we are able to detect weaker stimuli D All of the above are true. ) 12 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide ___ 6. If you can just notice the difference between 10- and 11-pound weights, which of the following weights could you differentiate from a 100-pound weight? A) 101-pound weight B) 105-pound weight C) 110-pound weight D) There is no basis for prediction. ___ 7. In shopping for a new stereo, you discover that you cannot differentiate between the sounds of models X and Y. The difference between X and Y is below your: A) absolute threshold. B) signal detection. C) receptor threshold. D) difference threshold. ___ 8. Weber's law states that: A the absolute threshold for any stimulus is a constant. ) B the jnd for any stimulus is a constant. ) C the absolute threshold for any stimulus is a constant proportion. ) D the jnd for any stimulus is a constant proportion. ) ___ 9. A decrease in sensory responsiveness accompanying an unchanging stimulus is called: A) sensory fatigue. B) accommodation. C) sensory adaptation. D) sensory interaction. ___ 10. Which of the following is an example of sensory adaptation? A finding the cold water of a swimming pool warmer after you have been in it for a while ) B ) developing an increased sensitivity to salt the more you use it in foods C becoming very irritated at the continuing sound of a dripping faucet ) D all of the above are examples ) ___ 11. When admiring the texture of a piece of fabric, Calvin usually runs his fingertips over the cloth's surface. He does this because: A if the cloth were held motionless, sensory adaptation to its feel would quickly occur. ) B ) the sense of touch does not adapt. C a relatively small amount of brain tissue is devoted to processing touch from the fingertips. ) D of all of the above reasons. ) ___ 12. The process by which sensory information is converted into neural energy is: A) sensory adaptation. B) feature detection. C) signal detection. D) transduction. ___ 13. Wavelength is to ________ as ________ is to brightness. A) hue; intensity B) intensity; hue C) frequency; amplitude D) brightness; hue ___ 14. One light may appear reddish and another greenish if they differ in: A) wavelength. B) amplitude. C) opponent processes. D) brightness. ___ 15. The size of the pupil is controlled by the: 13 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide A) lens. B) retina. C) cornea. D) iris. ___ 16. Which of the following is the correct order of the structures through which light passes after entering the eye? A lens, pupil, cornea, retina C pupil, lens, cornea, retina ) ) B pupil, cornea, lens, retina ) D cornea, pupil, lens, retina ) ___ 17. The process by which the lens changes its curvature is: A) accommodation. B) sensory adaptation. C) feature detection. D) transduction. ___ 18. Nearsightedness is a condition in which the: A lens has become inflexible. C image falls behind the retina. B D image falls in front of the retina. ) ) lens is too thin. ) ) ___ 19. In comparing the human eye to a camera, the film would be analogous to the eye's: A) pupil. B) lens. C) cornea. D) retina. ___ 20. The transduction of light energy into nerve impulses takes place in the: A) iris. B) retina. C) lens. D) optic nerve. ___ 21. One reason that your ability to detect fine visual details is greatest when scenes are focused on the fovea of your retina is that: A there are more feature detectors in the fovea than in the peripheral regions of the retina. ) B cones in the fovea are nearer to the optic nerve than those in peripheral regions of the retina. ) C many rods, which are clustered in the fovea, have individual bipolar cells to relay their information ) to the cortex. ) to the cortex. D many cones, which are clustered in the fovea, have individual bipolar cells to relay their information ___ 22. Which of the following is not true of cones? A Cones enable color vision. ) B ) Cones are highly concentrated in the foveal region of the retina. C Cones have a higher absolute threshold for brightness than rods. ) D All of the above are true. ) ___ 23. In order to maximize your sensitivity to fine visual detail you should: 14 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide A stare off to one side of the object you are attempting to see. ) B ) close one eye. C decrease the intensity of the light falling upon the object. ) D stare directly at the object. ) ___ 24. Assuming that the visual systems of humans and other mammals function similarly, you would expect that the retina of a nocturnal mammal (one active only at night) would contain: A mostly cones. ) B ) mostly rods. C an equal number of rods and cones. ) D more bipolar cells than an animal active only during the day. ) ___ 25. As the football game continued into the night, LeVar noticed that he was having difficulty distinguishing the colors of the players' uniforms. This is because the ________, which enable color vision, have a ________ absolute threshold for brightness than the available light intensity. A) rods; higher B) cones; higher C) rods; lower D) cones; lower ___ 26. The receptor of the eye that functions best in dim light is the: A) fovea. B) cone. C) bipolar cell. D) rod. ___ 27. Hubel and Wiesel discovered feature detectors in the visual: A) fovea. B) optic nerve. C) iris. D) cortex. ___ 28. The brain breaks vision into separate dimensions such as color, depth, movement, and form, and works on each aspect simultaneously. This is called: A) feature detection. B) parallel processing. C) accommodation. D) opponent processing. ___ 29. Which of the following is the most accurate description of how we process color? A Throughout the visual system, color processing is divided into separate red, green, and blue ) B systems. Red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white opponent processes operate throughout the visual system. ) C Color processing occurs in two stages: (1) a three-color system in the retina and (2) ) opponent-process cells en route to the visual cortex. ) three-color system en route to the visual cortex. D Color processing occurs in two stages: (1) an opponent-process system in the retina and (2) a 15 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide ___ 30. Most color-deficient people will probably: A lack functioning red- or green-sensitive cones. ) B ) see the world in only black and white. C also suffer from poor vision. ) D have above-average vision to compensate for the deficit. ) ___ 31. The Young-Helmholtz theory proposes that: A there are three different types of color-sensitive cones. ) B retinal cells are excited by one color and inhibited by its complementary color. ) C there are four different types of cones. ) D rod, not cone, vision accounts for our ability to detect fine visual detail. ) ___ 32. According to the opponent-process theory: A there are three types of color-sensitive cones. ) B the process of color vision begins in the cortex. ) C neurons involved in color vision are stimulated by one color's wavelength and inhibited by ) another's. D all of the above are true. ) ___ 33. In the opponent-process theory, the three pairs of processes are: A red-green, blue-yellow, black-white. C red-yellow, blue-green, black-white. ) ) B ) red-blue, green-yellow, black-white. D dependent upon the individual's experience. ) ___ 34. After staring at a very intense red stimulus for a few minutes, Carrie shifted her gaze to a beige wall and “saw” the color ________. Carrie's experience provides support for the ________ theory. A) green; trichromatic B) blue; opponent-process C) green; opponent-process D) blue; trichromatic ___ 35. I am a cell in the thalamus that is excited by red and inhibited by green. I am a(n): A) feature detector. B) cone. C) bipolar cell. D) opponent-process cell. 16 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide ___ 36. Which of the following explains why a rose appears equally red in bright and dim light? A) the Young-Helmholtz theory B) the opponent-process theory C) feature detection D) color constancy ___ 37. Frequency is to pitch as ________ is to ________. A) wavelength; loudness B) amplitude; loudness C) wavelength; intensity D) amplitude; intensity ___ 38. Dr. Frankenstein has forgotten to give his monster an important part; as a result, the monster cannot transduce sound. Dr. Frankenstein omitted the: A) eardrum. B) middle ear. C) semicircular canals. D) basilar membrane. ___ 39. Which of the following correctly lists the order of structures through which sound travels after entering the ear? A auditory canal, eardrum, middle ear, cochlea C eardrum, middle ear, cochlea, auditory canal B D cochlea, eardrum, middle ear, auditory canal ) ) eardrum, auditory canal, middle ear, cochlea ) ) ___ 40. The inner ear contains receptors for: A audition and kinesthesis. C audition and the vestibular sense. B D audition, kinesthesis, and the vestibular sense. ) ) kinesthesis and the vestibular sense. ) ) ___ 41. The place theory of pitch perception cannot account for how we hear: A low-pitched sounds. C high-pitched sounds. B D chords (three or more pitches simultaneously). ) ) middle-pitched sounds. ) ) ___ 42. Which of the following is the most accurate explanation of how we discriminate pitch? A For all audible frequencies, pitch is coded according to the place of maximum vibration on the ) cochlea's basilar membrane. ) of the sound wave. B For all audible frequencies, the rate of neural activity in the auditory nerve matches the frequency C For very high frequencies, pitch is coded according to place of vibration on the basilar membrane; ) for lower pitches, the rate of neural activity in the auditory nerve matches the sound's frequency. ) the sound wave; for lower frequencies, pitch is coded according to the place of vibration on the D For very high frequencies, the rate of neural activity in the auditory nerve matches the frequency of basilar membrane. ___ 43. The frequency theory of hearing is better than place theory at explaining our sensation of: 17 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide A) the lowest pitches. B) pitches of intermediate range. C) the highest pitches. D) all of the above. ___ 44. Seventy-five-year-old Claude has difficulty hearing high-pitched sounds. Most likely his hearing problem involves: A) his eardrum. B) his auditory canal. C) the bones of his middle ear. D) the hair cells of his inner ear. ___ 45. The hearing losses that occur with age are especially pronounced for: A) low-pitched sounds. B) middle-pitched sounds. C) high-pitched sounds. D) chords. ___ 46. Nerve deafness is caused by: A wax buildup in the outer ear. C blockage in the middle ear because of ) ) B ) damage to the eardrum. infection. D damage to the cochlea. ) ___ 47. Of the four distinct skin senses, the only one that has definable receptors is: A) warmth. B) cold. C) pressure. D) pain. ___ 48. Our experience of pain when we are injured depends on: A our biological make-up and the type of injury we have sustained. ) B ) how well medical personnel deal with our injury. C our physiology, experiences and attention, and our surrounding culture. ) D what our culture allows us to express in terms of feelings of pain. ) ___ 49. How does pain differ from other senses? A It has no special receptors. ) B ) It has no single stimulus. C It is influenced by both physical and psychological phenomena. ) D All of the above are true. ) ___ 50. According to the gate-control theory, a way to alleviate chronic pain would be to stimulate the ________ nerve fibers that ________ the spinal gate. A) small; open B) small; close C) large; open D) large; close 18 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide ___ 51. The phantom limb sensation indicates that: A pain is a purely sensory phenomenon. ) B ) the central nervous system plays only a minor role in the experience of pain. C pain involves the brain's interpretation of neural activity. ) D all of the above are true. ) ___ 52. While competing in the Olympic trials, marathoner Kirsten O'Brien suffered a stress fracture in her left leg. That she did not experience significant pain until the race was over is probably attributable to the fact that during the race: A the pain gate in her spinal cord was closed by information coming from her brain. ) B ) her body's production of endorphins decreased. C an increase in the activity of small pain fibers closed the pain gate. ) D a decrease in the activity of large pain fibers closed the pain gate. ) ___ 53. Which of the following is not one of the basic tastes? A) sweet B) salty C) umami D) bland ___ 54. Elderly Mrs. Martinez finds that she must spice her food heavily or she cannot taste it. Unfortunately, her son often finds her cooking inedible because it is so spicy. What is the likely explanation for their taste differences? A Women have higher taste thresholds than men. ) B ) Men have higher taste thresholds than women. C Being elderly, Mrs. Martinez probably has fewer taste buds than her son. ) D All of the above are likely explanations. ) ___ 55. The receptors for taste are located in the: A) taste buds. B) cochlea. C) fovea. D) cortex. ___ 56. Tamiko hates the bitter taste of her cough syrup. Which of the following would she find most helpful in minimizing the syrup's bad taste? A tasting something very sweet before taking the cough syrup ) 19 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide B keeping the syrup in her mouth for several seconds before swallowing it ) C holding her nose while taking the cough syrup ) D gulping the cough syrup so that it misses her tongue ) ___ 57. The principle that one sense may influence another is: A) transduction. B) sensory adaptation. C) Weber's law. D) sensory interaction. ___ 58. Which of the following is an example of sensory interaction? A finding that despite its delicious aroma, a weird-looking meal tastes awful ) B ) finding that food tastes bland when you have a bad cold C finding it difficult to maintain your balance when you have an ear infection ) D All of the above are examples. ) ___ 59. Kinesthesis involves: A the bones of the middle ear. C membranes within the cochlea. B D the body's sense of balance. ) ) information from the muscles, tendons, and joints. ) ) ___ 60. What enables you to feel yourself wiggling your toes even with your eyes closed? A) vestibular sense B) sense of kinesthesis C) the skin senses D) sensory interaction Questions 60 on are Perception ___ 61. The study of perception is primarily concerned with how we: A detect sights, sounds, and other stimuli. C develop sensitivity to illusions. ) ) B ) sense environmental stimuli. D interpret sensory stimuli. ) ___ 62. ________ processing refers to how the physical characteristics of stimuli influence their interpretation. A) Top-down B) Bottom-up C) Parapsychological D) Human factors ___ 63. ________ processing refers to how our knowledge and expectations influence perception. A) Top-down B) Bottom-up C) Parapsychological D) Human factors ___ 64. The perceptual error in which we fail to see an object when our attention is directed elsewhere is: 20 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide A) visual capture. B) inattentional blindness. C) perceptual adaptation. D) divergence. ___ 65. The illusion that the St. Louis Gateway arch appears taller than it is wide (even though its height and width are equal) is based on our sensitivity to which monocular depth cue? A) relative size B) interposition C) relative height D) retinal disparity ___ 66. Which of the following illustrates the principle of visual capture? A We tend to form first impressions of other people on the basis of appearance. ) B ) Because visual processing is automatic, we can pay attention to a visual image and any other sensation at the same time. C We cannot simultaneously attend to a visual image and another sensation. ) D When there is a conflict between visual information and that from another sense, vision tends to ) dominate. ___ 67. The term gestalt means: A) grouping. B) sensation. C) perception. D) whole. ___ 68. When the traffic light changed from red to green, the drivers on both sides of Leon's vehicle pulled quickly forward, giving Leon the disorienting feeling that his car was rolling backward. Which principle explains Leon's misperception? A) relative motion B) continuity C) visual capture D) proximity ___ 69. The historical movement associated with the statement “The whole may exceed the sum of its parts” is: A) parapsychology. B) behavioral psychology. C) functional psychology. D) Gestalt psychology. ___ 70. Which of the following statements is consistent with the Gestalt theory of perception? A Perception develops largely through learning. ) B ) Perception is the product of heredity. C The mind organizes sensations into meaningful perceptions. ) D Perception results directly from sensation. ) ___ 71. Concluding her presentation on sensation and perception, Kelly notes that: A sensation is bottom-up processing. ) B ) perception is top-down processing. 21 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide C a. and b. are both true. ) D sensation and perception blend into one continuous process. ) ___ 72. The figure-ground relationship has demonstrated that: A perception is largely innate. ) B perception is simply a point-for-point representation of sensation. ) C the same stimulus can trigger more than one perception. ) D different people see different things when viewing a scene. ) ___ 73. Figure is to ground as ________ is to ________. A) night; day B) top; bottom C) cloud; sky D) sensation; perception ___ 74. The tendency to organize stimuli into smooth, uninterrupted patterns is called: A) closure. B) continuity. C) similarity. D) proximity. ___ 75. All of the following are laws of perceptual organization except: A) proximity. B) closure. C) continuity. D) convergence. ___ 76. Studying the road map before her trip, Colleen had no trouble following the route of the highway she planned to travel. Colleen's ability illustrates the principle of: A) closure. B) similarity. C) continuity. D) proximity. ___ 77. Figures tend to be perceived as whole, complete objects, even if spaces or gaps exist in the representation, thus demonstrating the principle of: A) connectedness. B) similarity. C) continuity. D) closure. ___ 78. Studies of the visual cliff have provided evidence that much of depth perception is: A innate. C innate in lower animals, learned in humans. B D innate in humans, learned in lower animals. ) ) learned. ) ) ___ 79. The visual cliff tests an infant's perceptual sensitivity to which depth cue? A) interposition B) relative height C) linear perspective D) texture gradient ___ 80. When we stare at an object, each eye receives a slightly different image, providing a depth cue known as: A) convergence. B) linear perspective. C) relative motion. D) retinal disparity. 22 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide ___ 81. Which of the following is not a monocular depth cue? A) texture gradient B) relative height C) retinal disparity D) interposition ___ 82. When two familiar objects of equal size cast unequal retinal images, the object that casts the smaller retinal image will be perceived as being: A closer than the other object. C larger than the other object. ) ) B more distant than the other object. ) D smaller than the other object. ) ___ 83. If you slowly bring your finger toward your face until it eventually touches your nose, eye-muscle cues called ________ convey depth information to your brain. A) retinal disparity B) interposition C) continuity D) convergence ___ 84. How do we perceive a pole that partially covers a wall? A as farther away ) B ) as nearer C as larger ) D There is not enough information to determine the object's size or distance ) ___ 85. The tendency to perceive hazy objects as being at a distance is known as ________. This is a ________ depth cue. A linear perspective; binocular C relative clarity; binocular B D relative clarity; monocular ) ) linear perspective; monocular ) ) ___ 86. Objects higher in our field of vision are perceived as ________ due to the principle of ________. A nearer; relative height C farther away; relative height B D farther away; linear perspective ) ) nearer; linear perspective ) ) ___ 87. Because the flowers in the foreground appeared coarse and grainy, the photographer decided that the picture was taken too near the subject. This conclusion was based on which depth cue? A) relative size B) interposition C) retinal disparity D) texture gradient ___ 88. The depth cue that occurs when we watch stable objects at different distances as we are moving is: A) convergence. B) interposition. C) relative clarity. D) relative motion. 23 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide ___ 89. Which of the following is a monocular depth cue? A) light and shadow B) convergence C) retinal disparity D) all of the above are monocular depth cues ___ 90. According to the principle of light and shadow, if one of two identical objects reflects more light to your eyes it will be perceived as: A) larger. B) smaller. C) farther away. D) nearer. ___ 91. An artist paints a tree orchard so that the parallel rows of trees converge at the top of the canvas. Which cue has the artist used to convey distance? A) interposition B) relative clarity C) linear perspective D) texture gradient ___ 92. As we move, viewed objects cast changing shapes on our retinas, although we do not perceive the objects as changing. This is part of the phenomenon of: A) perceptual constancy. B) relative motion. C) linear perspective. D) continuity. ___ 93. Each time you see your car, it projects a different image on the retinas of your eyes, yet you do not perceive it as changing. This is because of: A) perceptual set. B) retinal disparity. C) perceptual constancy. D) convergence. ___ 94. The phenomenon of size constancy is based upon the close connection between an object's perceived ________ and its perceived ________. A) size; shape B) size; distance C) size; brightness D) shape; distance ___ 95. In the absence of perceptual constancy: A objects would appear to change size as their distance from us changed. ) B depth perception would be based exclusively on monocular cues. ) C depth perception would be based exclusively on binocular cues. ) D depth perception would be impossible. ) ___ 96. Your friend tosses you a frisbee. You know that it is getting closer instead of larger because of: A) shape constancy. B) relative motion. C) size constancy. D) all of the above. ___ 97. As her friend Milo walks toward her, Noriko perceives his size as remaining constant because his perceived distance ________ at the same time that her retinal image of him ________. A) increases; decreases B) increases; increases C) decreases; decreases D) decreases; increases ___ 98. The Moon illusion occurs in part because distance cues at the horizon make the Moon seem: 24 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide A farther away and therefore larger. C farther away and therefore smaller. ) ) B closer and therefore larger. ) D closer and therefore smaller. ) ___ 99. Which explanation of the Müller-Lyer illusion is offered by the text? A The corners in our carpentered world teach us to interpret outward- or inward-pointing arrowheads ) B at the end of a line as a cue to the line's distance from us and so to its length. The drawing's violation of linear perspective makes one line seem longer. ) C Top-down processing of the illusion is prevented because of the stimuli's ambiguity. ) D All of the above were offered as explanations. ) ___ The insensitivity of many rural Africans to the Müller-Lyer illusion proves that perception: 100. A is largely a “bottom-up” phenomenon. C is influenced by cultural experience. B D is characterized by all of the above. ) ) is unpredictable. ) ) ___ The fact that a white object under dim illumination appears lighter than a gray object under bright 101. illumination is called: A) relative luminance. B) perceptual adaptation. C) color contrast. D) lightness constancy. ___ Which philosopher maintained that knowledge comes from inborn ways of organizing our sensory 102. experiences? A) Locke B) Kant C) Gibson D) Walk ___ According to the philosopher ________, we learn to perceive the world. 103. A) Locke B) Kant C) Gibson D) Walk ___ Which of the following influences perception? 104. A) biological maturation B) the context in which stimuli are perceived C) expectations D) all of the above ___ Adults who are born blind but later have their vision restored: 105. A are almost immediately able to recognize familiar objects. ) 25 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide B typically fail to recognize familiar objects. ) C are unable to follow moving objects with their eyes. ) D have excellent eye-hand coordination. ) ___ Kittens and monkey reared seeing only diffuse, unpatterned light: 106. A later had difficulty distinguishing color and brightness. ) B ) later had difficulty perceiving color and brightness, but eventually regained normal sensitivity. C later had difficulty perceiving the shape of objects. ) D showed no impairment in perception, indicating that neural feature detectors develop even in the ) absence of normal sensory experiences. ___ Which of the following statements best describes the effects of sensory restriction? 107. A It produces functional blindness when experienced for any length of time at any age. ) B ) It has greater effects on humans than on animals. C It has more damaging effects when experienced during infancy. ) D It has greater effects on adults than on children. ) ___ Experiments with distorted visual environments demonstrate that: 108. A adaptation rarely takes place. ) B ) animals adapt readily, but humans do not. C humans adapt readily, while lower animals typically do not. ) D adaptation is possible during a critical period in infancy but not thereafter. ) ___ Although carpenter Smith perceived a briefly viewed object as a screwdriver, police officer Wesson 109. perceived the same object as a knife. This illustrates that perception is guided by: A) linear perspective. B) shape constancy. C) retinal disparity. D) perceptual set. 26 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide ___ The phenomenon that refers to the ways in which an individual's expectations influence perception is 110. called: A) perceptual set. B) retinal disparity. C) convergence. D) visual capture. ___ Thanks to ______, TiVo has solved the TV recording problem caused by the complexity of VCRs. 111. A) parapsychologists. B) human factors psychologists. C) psychokineticists. D) Gestalt psychologists. ___ Dr. Martin is using natural mapping to redesign the instrument gauges of automobiles to be more “user 112. friendly.” Dr. Martin is evidently a(n): A) psychophysicist. B) cognitive psychologist. C) human factors psychologist. D) experimental psychologist. ___ Psychologists who study ESP are called: 113. A) clairvoyants. B) telepaths. C) parapsychologists. D) levitators. ___ Jack claims that he often has dreams that predict future events. He claims to have the power of: 114. A) telepathy. B) clairvoyance. C) precognition. D) psychokinesis. ___ A person claiming to be able to read another's mind is claiming to have the ESP ability of: 115. A) psychokinesis. B) precognition. C) clairvoyance. D) telepathy. ___ Regina claims that she can bend spoons, levitate furniture, and perform many other “mind over 116. matter” feats. Regina apparently believes she has the power of: A) telepathy. B) clairvoyance. C) precognition. D) psychokinesis. ___ The predictions of leading psychics are: 117. A often ambiguous prophecies later interpreted to match actual events. ) B ) no more accurate than guesses made by others. C nearly always inaccurate. ) D all of the above. ) ___ Which of the following statements concerning ESP is true? 118. 27 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide A Most ESP researchers are quacks. ) B There have been a large number of reliable demonstrations of ESP. ) C Most research psychologists are skeptical of the claims of defenders of ESP. ) D There have been reliable laboratory demonstrations of ESP, but the results are no different from ) those that would occur by chance. ___ Researchers who investigated telepathy found that: 119. A when external distractions are reduced, both the “sender” and the “receiver” become much more ) accurate in demonstrating ESP. B only “senders” become much more accurate. ) C only “receivers” become much more accurate. ) D over many studies, none of the above occur. ) Answer Key 22. D 44. D 24. B 46. D 1. C 23. D 3. C 25. B 47. C 5. D 27. D 49. D 7. D 29. C 51. C 9. C 31. A 53. D 11. A 33. A 55. A 13. A 35. D 57. D 15. D 37. B 59. B 17. A 39. A 61. D 19. D 41. A 63. A 21. D 43. A 65. C 2. B 4. B 26. D 6. C 28. B 8. D 30. A 10. A 32. C 12. D 34. C 14. A 36. D 16. D 38. D 18. D 40. C 20. B 42. C 45. C 48. C 50. D 52. A 54. C 56. C 58. D 60. B 62. B 64. B 28 Tripken 5/6 Study Guide 66. D 110. A 67. D 111. B 69. D 113. C 71. D 115. D 73. C 117. D 75. D 119. D 68. C 70. C 72. C 74. B 76. C 112. C 114. C 116. D 118. C 77. D 78. A 79. D 80. D 81. C 82. B 83. D 84. B 85. D 86. C 87. D 88. D 89. A 90. D 91. C 92. A 93. C 94. B 95. A 96. C 97. D 98. A 99. A 100. C 101. D 102. B 103. A 104. D 105. B 106. C 107. C 108. C 109. D 2 Tripken 5/6 Sensation and Perception Study Guide 3 Name: