Personality Lecture Notes 12

Personality ★ Psychodynamic Perspectives ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Personality: a pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world. Psychodynamic perspectives: on personality emphasize that personality is primarily unconscious. (beyond awareness) Psychodynamic theorists use the word unconscious differently, meaning that aspects of our personality are unconscious because they must be: simply because it is too frightening to be part of our awareness. Psychodynamic theorists believe that behavior is only a surface characteristic and that to truly understand someone’s personality, we have to explore the symbolic meanings of that behavior and the deep inner workings of the mind. They also stress that early childhood experience shapes adult personality. The psychodynamic view of personality was introduced by Sigmund Freud. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory ■ For Freud, the sexual drive was the most important motivator in human life. ■ The human sex drive was the main determinant of personality development, and he felt like psychological disorders, dreams and all human behavior reporesented the conflict between unconscious and sexual drive and the demands on civilized human society. ■ Freud developed psychoanalysis, his approach to personality, through his patients with hysteria. ■ In Freud’s day, many young women suffered from hysteria, which are physical problems that could not be explained by actual physical illness. ■ Freud came to understand that the hysterical symptoms stemmed from unconscious conflicts. He concluded that hysterical symptoms were overdetermined, meaning that those symptoms had many causes in the unconscious. ■ He saw personality as an iceberg, existing below the level of awareness, just as the massive part of the iceberg lies beneath the surface of the water. ■ Structures of Personality ● Three structures of personality described by Freud: ○ Id, ego, superego ● The id consists of conscious drives and is the individual’s reservoir of sexual energy. It has no contact with reality. It works according to the pleasure principle: the Freudian concept that the id seeks immediate gratification ● The ego is the freudian structure of personality that deals with the demands of reality. The ego abides by the reality principle. It tries to get the id what it wants within the norms of society. ● Whereas the id is completely unconscious, the ego is partly conscious. ● ■ ■ The superego is the harash internal judge of our behavior. It is reflected in what we often call conscience and evaluates the morality of our behavior. Defense Mechanisms ● The conflicts that erupt among the demands of the id, superego, and reality create a great deal of anxiety for the ego. The ego has defense mechanisms for dealing with these anxiety, called defense mechanisms. ● Defense mechanisms are tactics the ego uses to reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. ● Displacement means directing unacceptable impulses at a less threatening target. ● Repression is the most powerful and pervasive defense mechanism. ● To reduce the anxiety caused by the unacceptable id impulses, repression pushes these pulses back into the unconscious. Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development ● Freud believed that human beings go through universal stages of personality development and at each developmental stage we experience sexual pleasure in one part of the body more than others. ● Each stage is named for the location of sexual pleasure at that age. ● Erogenous zones are parts of the body that have especially strong pleasure-giving qualities at particular stages of development. ● Oral Stage: (first 18 months) the infant’s pleasure centers on the mouth ● Anal Stage: (18 to 36 months) During a time when most children are experiencing toilet training, the child’s greatest pleasure involves the anus and urethra and their functions. ● Phallic stage: (3 to 6 years) Pleasure focuses on the genitals as the child discovers self-stimulation is enjoyable. ● The phallic stage has special importance in personality development because it triggers the Oedipus complex. ● The Oedipus complex is the boy’s intense desire to replace his father and enjoy the affections of his mother. Eventually, the boy recognizes that his father might punish him by cutting the boy’s penis off. To reduce this conflict, the boy identifies with the father, adopting the male gender role. ● Because a girl does not have a penis, she cannot experience castration anxiety. Instead, she experiences castration completed, resulting in penis envy - the intense desire to obtain a penis by eventually marrying and bearing a son. ● Latency Period: (6 years to puberty) this phase is not a developmental stage, but rather a kind of psychic time-out. ● Genital Stage: (adolescence and adulthood) The genital stage is the time of sexual reawakening, a point where the source of sexual pleasure shifts to someone outside the family. ● Fixation occurs when a particular psychosexual stage colors and individual’s adult personality ○ Psychodynamic Critics and Revisionists ■ Freud’s critics said that his ideas about sexuality, early experience, social factors, and the unconscious mind are misguided. ■ Sexuality is not the pervasive force that Freud believed it to be. The Oedipus complex is not as universal as Freud maintained. ■ The first five years of life are not as powerful in adult shaping personality as Freud thought. ■ The ego and conscious thought processes play a larger role in personality than Freud believed. ■ Sociocultural factors are much more important than Freud believed. ■ Horney’s Sociocultural Approach ● Karen Horney (1885-1952) rejected the notion that anatomy is destiny. ● She argued that sociocultural influences on personality development should be investigated as well. ● Further, she suggested that both sexes envy the attributes of the other, with men coveting women’s reproductive capacities. ● Horney believed that the need for security, not sex, is the prime motive in human existence. ● She viewed psychological health as allowing the person to express talents and abilities freely and spontaneously ■ Jung’s Analytical Theory ● Carl Jung (1875-1961) shared Freud's interest in the unconscious, but he believed that Freud underplayed the role of the unconscious mind in personality. ● Jung believed the roots of personality go back to the dawn of humanity. ● The collective unconscious is Jung’s term for the impersonal, deepest layer of the unconscious mind, shared by all human beings because of their common ancestral past. ● Jung said that the collective unconscious contains archetypes, emotionally laden ideas and images that have symbolic meaning for all people (religion, art, literature) ● Anima (passive feminine side) ● Animus (assertive masculine side) ● Persona (represents the public mask that we all wear during social interactions) ● He believed that the persona is an essential archetype because the persona allows us to always keep some secret part of ourselves hidden from others. ■ Alder’s Individual Psychology ● Alfred Adler (1870-1937) came up with individual psychology, people are motivated by purposes and goals-thus, perfection, not pleasure, is the key motivator in human life. ● ○ ○ Adler thought that everyone strives for superiority by seeking to adapt, improve, and master the environment. Striving for superiority is our response to the uncomfortable feelings of inferiority that we experience. ● Compensation is Adler’s term for the individual’s attempt to overcome imagined or real inferiorities or weaknesses by developmenting one’s own abilities. ● Adler believed that birth order could have a profound influence on personality; however, Adler only theorized about birth order; he did not conduct empirical research to investigate whether birth order affects personality. Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspectives ■ Core principles: ● Personality is determined by all experiences. ● Personality can be better understood by examining it developmentally. ● We mentally transform our experiences. ● The mind is not all conscious; unconscious motives lie behind some of our puzzling behavior. ● Personality and adjustment are important topics of psychological inquiry. ● Some critics say that psychodynamic theorists overemphasize the influence of early family experiences on personality and do not acknowledge that people retain the capacity for change and adaptation throughout life. Some have argued, too, that psychoanalysis is not a theory that researchers can test through empirical studies. However, numerous empirical students on concepts such as defense mechanisms and the unconscious have proved this criticism to be unfounded. ● In light of these criticisms, it may be hard to appreciate why Freud continues to have an impact on psychology. Freud made a number of important contributions, including being the first to propose that childhood is crucial to later functioning. Test Yourself: ■ What are three structures of personality did Freud describe, and how did he define each? ● Id is the individual’s reservoir of sexual energy. It seeks immediate gratification. ● The ego contains the id and conforms it to reality. ● Superego is your morals on the subject. ■ What are Freud’s psychosexual stages of personality development? ● Oral Stage (first 18 months) ● Anal Stage (18 to 36 months) ● Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) ● Latency Period (6 years to puberty) ● Genital Stage (adolescence and adulthood) ■ What criticisms have been leveled at psychodynamic theories of personality? ● Psychoanalysis is not a theory that researchers can test through empirical studies. ★ Humanistic Perspectives ○ ○ ○ ○ Humanistic perspectives stress a person’s capacity for personal growth and positive human qualities Humanistic psychologists believe that we all have the ability to control our lives and to achieve what we desire. Maslow’s Approach ■ A leading architect of the humanistic movement was Abraham Maslow (19081970). ■ He believed that we can learn the most about human personality by focusing on the very best examples of human beings - self actualizers. ■ Self-actualization is the motivation to develop one’s full potential as a human being. ■ Self actualizers can be known to be spontaneous, creative, and possessing a childlike capacity for awe. ■ Since he concentrated on people who were more successful in a particular historical context, Maslow’s self actualizers include only those who had opportunities for success in that setting. Rogers’s Approach ■ Carl Rogers (1902-1987), began his career as a psychotherapist struggling to understand the unhappiness of the individuals he encountered in therapy. ■ He established foundations for more contemporary studies of personal growth and self-determination. ■ He believed that we are all born with the raw ingredients of a fulfilling life. We simply need the right conditions to thrive. ■ Explaining Unhappiness ● The problem arises when our need for positive regard from others is not met unconditionally. ● Unconditional positive regard means being accepted, valued, and treated positively regardless of one’s behavior. ● Often, others value us only when we behave in particular ways that meet particular standards. Conditions of worth are the standards we must live up to in order to receive positive regard from others. ● We develop a self-concept, our conscious representation of who we are, and who we wish to become, during childhood. ● For Rogers, the self-concept is the hub of human functioning. Optimally, this self-concept reflects our genuine, innate desires; however, conditions of worth can become part of the self-concept. As a result, we can become alienated from our real feelings and strive to actualize a self that does not represent our authentic desires. ■ Promoting Optimal Functioning ● Rogers believed that the person must reconnect with his or her true feelings and desires. ● ○ ○ The individual must experience a relationship that includes three essential qualities: unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness. ● First is unconditional positive regard which can be achieved by respect, comfort and love of others. ● The second is empathy. Empathy involves being a sensitive listener and understanding another’s true feelings. ● The third one is being genuine. Being genuine means being open with one’s feelings and dropping all pretenses and facades. Evaluating the Humanistic Perspectives ■ Humanistic perspectives emphasize that the way we perceive ourselves and the world around us is an essential element of personality. ■ Humanistic psychologists stress that we need to consider the whole person and the positive side of human nature. ■ Personality contains a well of potential that can be developed to its fullest. ■ Some critics believe that humanistic psychologists are too optimistic about human nature. Test Yourself: ■ What do the humanistic perspectives on personality emphasize? ● A person’s capacity for personal growth and positive human qualities ■ What name did Maslow give to the motivation to develop to one’s full human potential? ● Self-actualization ■ According to Rogers, what three qualities do individuals need to receive in a relationship in order to connect with their feelings and desires? How did Rogers define each quality? ● To be genuine, empathy, and unconditional positive regard ★ Trait Perspectives ○ Trait Theories ■ Trait theories: personality consists of broad, enduring dispositions that tend to lead to characteristic responses. ■ We can describe people in terms of the way they behave. ■ Although trait theorists hold different views about which traits make up personality, they agree that traits are the fundamental building blocks of personality. ■ Gordon Allport (1897-1967) was particularly bothered by the negative view of humanity that psychoanalysis portrayed. ■ He rejected the notion that the unconscious was central to an understanding of personality and believed that to understand healthy people, we must focus on their lives in the present, not past. ■ He was dedicated to the idea that psychology should have relevance to issues facing modern society. ■ Personality psychology should focus on understanding, health well-adjusted individuals ○ ● A positive by objective sense of self and other ● Sinterest in issues beyond their experience ● Sense of humor ● Common sense ● Unifying philosophy of life ■ Allport asserted that traits were the optimal way to understand personality. ■ Traits are mental structures that make different situations the same for the person. ■ In the late 1930’s, Allport and his colleague sat with two unabridged dictionaries and pulled out all the words that could be used to describe a person called the lexical approach. ■ Researchers began to analyze trait words to look for underlying structures that might explain their overlap. Specifically, a statistical procedure called factor analysis allowed researchers to identify the traits that go together. ■ Factor analysis tells us what items on a scale people are responding to if they mean the same thing ■ One important characteristic of factor analysis is that it relies on the scientist to interpret the meaning of the factors, and the researcher must make some decisions about how many factors are sufficient to explain the data. The Five-Factor Model of Personality ■ Researchers in personality psychology have found that there are essentially five broad personality dimensions that are represented in the natural language; these dimensions also summarize the various ways psychologists have studied traits ■ The big five factors of personality are the broad traits that are thought to describe the main dimensions of personality ● Neuroticism (the tendency to worry and experience negative emotions) ○ Health complains ○ Associated with lower levels of psychological well-being ● Extraversion ○ More likely to engage in social activities ○ Smiling, standing energetically, and dressing stylishly ○ Very strong correlate of psychological well-being ● Openness to experience ○ Related to liberal values, open-mindedness, tolerance, creativity, superior cognitive functioning and IQ across the life span ○ Greater functional connectivity in the brain ● Agreeableness ○ Related to generosity, altruism, religious faith, and more satisfying social relationships ● Conscientiousness ○ High college gpa, better work performances ■ Openness to experience is often the most difficult to understand. It refers to a tendency to enjoy intellectual pursuits, to be interested in art and culture, and to engage in creative pursuits. ■ ○ ○ The five factors are theoretically independent of one another, a person can be any combination of them, ■ If our personalities are not particularly well suited to a situation, we can change that situation or create one that is better first. ■ Traits and Personality Development ● Although it is an assumption of the trait approach that these aspects of personality are relatively stable, numerous studies show that personality traits can change throughout life. They come to think of these changes as representing personality development because they often indicate a change from less to greater psychological maturity. ● In general, changes in personality traits across adulthood occur in a direction suggesting that people become more socially mature with time. ■ The Big Five Across Cultures ● Among the big five, the factors most likely to emerge across cultures and languages are extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. ● Personality traits like the big five have also been used to address another way of thinking about people-as types. ■ Animal Studies on the Big Five ● Researchers have found evidence for at least some of the big five personality traits in animals. ● Studies showing the existence of traits in nonhuman primates are especially important in exploring the likely evolutionary roots of human personality. Evaluating the Trait Perspectives ■ The trait approach is the dominant perspective on personality psychology today. ■ The emergency of the five-factor model has provided personality psychologists with a common language and a set of tools for understanding a host of important topics, including the prediction of behavior, psychological well-being, psychological disorders, and health and illness. ■ Personality researchers say that traits may not end up being the ultimate list of broad traits. ■ The trait approach has been faulted for missing the importance of situation factors in personality and behavior Test Yourself: ■ How do trait theorists define personality? ● Trait theorists define personality as describing people in terms of the ways they behave. ■ What kind of work did the lexical approach of Allport and Odbert involve, and what key idea about personality traits did it reflect? ● The kind of work the lexical approach involved was to take words out of a dictionary that described people, then narrow it down. ● The key idea about personality traits they discovered is that items on a scale are responding to as if they mean the same thing, also known as factor analysis. ■ What traits are included in the big five factors of personality? Define them. ● Neuroticism ● Extraversion ● Openness to experience ● Agreeableness ● Conscientiousness ★ Personological and Life Story Perspectives ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ One of the goals of personality psychology is to understand how each of us is unique. Personality and life story perspectives stress that the way to understand the uniqueness of each person is to focus on his or her life history and life story. Murray’s Personological Approach ■ Murray and Allport had different views. ■ Murray embraced the psychodynamic notion of unconscious motivation. ■ Murray coined the term personology, to refer to the study of the whole person. He believed that to understand a person, we have to know that person’s history. ■ Murray applied his insights into personality during World War II, when he was called upon by the Office of Strategic Services to develop a psychological profile of Adolf Hitler. ■ The aspect of Murray’s research that has had the most impact on contemporary personality psychology is his approach to motivation. ■ Our motives are largely unknown to us. ■ For the TAT, a person looks at an ambiguous picture and writes or tells a story about what is going on in the scene. ■ Content analysis: a procedure in which a psychologist takes the person’s story and codes it for different images, words, and so forth ● Need for achievement ● Need for affiliation ● Need for power The Life Story Approach to Identity ■ Dan McAdams developed the life story approach to identity. ■ This life story is a constantly changing narrative that provides us with a sense of coherence. For McAdams, our life story is our very identity. ■ Adams also introduced the concept of intimacy motivation. ■ Intimacy motive is an enduring concern for warm interpersonal encounters for their own sake. It is relieved in the warm, positive interpersonal imagery in the stories people tell. ■ Psychobiography is a type of inquiry in which personality psychologists attempt to apply personality theory to one person’s life Evaluating the Personological and Life Story Perspectives ■ Studying individuals through narratives and personal interviews provides an extraordinarily rich opportunity for the researcher. ■ However, such studies are difficult and time-consuming ■ Further, for narrative studies to be worthwhile, they must tell us something we could not have found out in a much easier way. ■ ○ Moreover, psychobiographical inquiries tend to reflect the biases of the scholars who conduct them, may violate the privacy of the subjects of inquiry, and may not serve the scientific goal of generalizability Test Yourself: ■ What did Murray mean by personology, and what did he believe was essential to understanding who a person really is? ● Personalogy is the study of the whole person ● He believed that to understand a person, we need to know that person’s history. ■ On what does McAdams say our identities depend? ● Our identities depend on our life story. ■ What is the intimacy motive? What has research revealed about it? ● The intimacy motive is an enduring concern for warm interpersonal encounters for their own sake. ● Research has revealed that people who are high on intimacy motives are more happy. ★ Social Cognitive Perspectives ○ ○ ○ ○ B Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory ■ Observational Learning ■ Personal Control ■ Self-Efficacy Michael’s Contributions ■ Mischel’s Critique of Consistency ■ Caps Theory Evaluating the Social Cognitive Perspectives ★ Biological Perspectives ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ P Personality and the Brain ■ Eysenck’s Reticular Activation System Theory ■ Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory ■ The Role of Neurotransmitters Personality and Behavior Genetics Evaluating the Biological Perspectives Test Yourself: ■ According to Eysenck, what part of the brain influences whether a person is an introvert or an extravert? ■ How does Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality explain extraversion and neuroticism? ■ What is behavioral genetics, and what kind of study is commonly used in research in this area? ★ Personality Assessment ○ S ○ ○ ○ ○ Self-Report Tests ■ MMPI ■ Assessment of the Big Five Factors Projective Tests Other Assessment Methods Test Yourself: ■ What is an empirically keyed test? ■ What is a common problem with self-report tests? ■ What technique does the TAT (or PSE) involve? ★ Personality and Health and Wellness ○ ○ ○ ○ P Personality and Physical Health ■ Conscientiousness ■ Personal Control ■ Self-Efficacy ■ Optimism ■ Personality Types: The Type A/Type B and Type D Behavior Patterns Personality and Psychological Well-Being Test yourself: ■ What are the four personality characteristics that are associated with positive functioning and positive life changes? ■ How have various researchers defined optimism? ■ What is the Type A behavior pattern, and what specific aspect of it is most often linked to coronary disease?