Orientation to Lifespan Development

Orientation to Lifespan Development Developmentalists study how both the biologi- cal inheritance from our parents and the environment in which we live jointly affect our behavior. Define the field of lifespan development and describe what it encompasses Lifespan development is the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire lifespan. Physical development: development involving the body’s physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep Cognitive development: development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person’s behavior Personality development :development involving the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change over the lifespan Social development: the way in which individuals interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life Influences on Development Cohort - a group of people born at around the same time in the same place Mcclod talks about his experience growing up with his mother who grew up during the Great depression(always gotta make sure there is food in the house, a lot of can expired/ get an extra one encased something happen) - Major social events: wars, economic upturns, depression, famines, epidemics Cohort effects provide an example of History-graded influences, which are biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment. Ex: people who lived in New York City during the 9/11 terrorist attack on the World Trade Center experienced shared biological and environmental challenges due to the attack Age-graded influences are biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group, regardless of when or where they are raised. Ex:biological events such as puberty and menopause are universal events that occur at relatively the same time throughout all societies. Similarly, a socioCultural events such as entry into formal education can be considered an age-graded influence because it occurs in most cultures around six. Sociocultural-graded influences--the social and cultural factors present at a particular time for a particular individual, depending on such variables as ethnicity, social class, and subcultural membership. Ex:sociocultural-graded influences will be considerably different for children who are white and affluent than for children who are members of a minority group and living in poverty Non-normative---life events are specific, atypical events that occur in a person’s life at a time when such events do not happen to most people. Ex: A child whose parents die in an automobile accident when she is six years old has experienced a significant nonnormative life event. Key Issue and Questions: Determining the Nature and Nurture of lifespan development NATURE VS NURTURE TEST NATURE WITH INTELLIGENCE: BY testing identical Twins with their IQ test IQ differences within the genetic in identical twins chains would be the same even raised in the different family. ? Nature DOES play a role Continuous change: gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels Discontinuous change: development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages A critical period is a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences. In a sensitive period, organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environment. maturation: the predetermined unfolding of genetic information Theorists: Piaget, Freud, Erikson, Coberg The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person Sigmund Freud: psychodynamic perspective: the approach stating that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control Freud- everyone’s personality has three aspects: id, ego, and superego. The id is the raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth. It represents primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. The id operates according to the pleasure principle, in which the goal is to maximize satisfaction and reduce tension. The ego is the part of personality that is rational and reasonable. The ego acts as a buffer between the real world outside of us and the primitive id. The ego operates on the reality principle, in which instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain the safety of the individual and help integrate the person into society. Finally, Freud proposed that the superego represents a person’s conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong. It begins to develop around age five or six and is learned from an individual’s parents, teachers, and other significant figures. -If children are unable to gratify themselves sufficiently during a particular stage, or conversely, if they receive too much gratification, fixation may occur. -Oral stage fixation: “Biting” Sarcasm: fixation during oral stage, complimenting and shading someone at the same time Unusually absorbed in oral cavities-eating, talking or chewing gum. -Anal retentive: controlling -Penis envy:little girls jealous of being boys? -Defense Mechanism: Rationalization: giving yourself a reason Erik Erikson Psychosocial development-the approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another, as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society 8 distinct stages Morals: what is considered right and wrong Determined by parents, environment, society, culture, gender Behavioral perspective: suggest that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment. John B. Watson (Watson’s assistant): - Counter conditioning: to reverse the behavior learned through phobias - the behavioral perspective suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment. - Father of behavioral Psychology - Psychology should study behavior, not the unobservable "mind"; look for the "causes" of behavior in the environment; Understanding behavior requires no reference to any unobservable event occurring within the individual; No fundamental differences between human and animal behavior - Little Albert Study- a famous case, John Watson in 1920 toddler made to fear white furry things - Behavioral perspective: the approach suggesting that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning: a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response Correlation, automic Dog and bell, salivating Dog is repeatedly exposed to the pairing of the sound of a bell and the presentation of meat, it may learn to react to the bell alone in the same way it reacts to the meat--by salivating and wagging its tail with excitement B.F. Skinner 1975 (Psychology is the "science of behavior");Emphasis on what can be directly observed Operant conditioning: a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences Voluntary and purposeful People operate on their environments to bring about a desired state of affairs Reinforcements/rewards: Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. behavior modification: a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones Albert Bandura social-cognitive learning theory: learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model Monkey see, Monkey do Growing up in an abusive household, if the father is abusive, the son can learn to become that way and the daughter can learn from the mother to just take it cognitive perspective: the approach that focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world Jean Plaget(p.g18) Cognitive Development: all people pass in a fixed cognitive sequence through a series of universal stage of cognitive development Not only does the quantity of information increase in each stage, but the quality of knowledge and understanding changes as well Doesn’t take into account those with learning disabilities neo-Piagetian theory: considers cognition as being made up of different types of individual skills. Alternative to Plagetian approaches: Information processing approaches: models that seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information Cognitive Neuroscience Approaches cognitive neuroscience: approaches look at cognitive development through the lens of brain processes. Autism: a major developmental disability that can produce profound language deficits and self-injurious behavior in young children. Carl Rogers Humanistic perspective: the theory contending that people have a natural capacity to make decision about their lives and control their behavior Suggest that all people have a need for positive regard that results from an underlying wish to be loved and respected. The Autistic Brain: Neuroscientists have found that the brain of an individual with autism is larger than the brain of an individual without autism. This finding might help identify the disorder early so that proper health care can be provided. Contextual perspective: the theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds The contextual perspective considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds. The bioecological approach suggests that five levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals. Urie Bronfenbrenner bioecological perspective: the perspective suggesting that different levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals -Microsystem: is the everyday immediate environment in their daily lives - Hoes, caregivers, friends and teachers -Mesosystem: Connections between the microsystem - PTA for school and parents - Links in a chain - Binds children to parents, students to teachers. Exosystem: represents border influences, societal institutions - local government, the community, school, places of worship, and the local media -Macrosystem: represents the larger cultural influences on an individual - Society in general, types of governments, religious and political value systems. Chronosystem: Underlies each of the previous system - passage of time - terrorist attacks in September 2001 - such as changes in the number of women who work outside of the home The bioecological approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of the influences on development. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky sociocultural theory: the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture Vygotsky argued that children’s understanding of the world is acquired through their problem-solving interactions with adults and other children children can develop cognitively in their understanding of the world, and learn what is important in society, through play and cooperation with others Cased studies- detail Konrad Lorenz The evolutionary perspective: seeks to identify behavior that is the result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors The evolutionary perspective draws heavily on the field of ethology, which examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior. discovered that newborn geese are genetically preprogrammed to become attached to the first moving object they see after birth. Konrad Lorenz, seen here with geese who from their birth have followed him, considered the ways in which behavior reflects inborn genetic patterns. Six major perspectives used in lifespan development—psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, contextual, and evolutionary. Research Methods (p.g 28) scientific method: the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and the collection of data Theories: explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of inter- est, providing a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts or principles Hypothesis: a prediction stated in a way that permits it to be tested correlational research: research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists experimental research is designed to discover causal relationships between various factors. naturalistic observation: a type of correlational study in which some naturally occurring behavior is observed without intervention in the situation case study: study that involves extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals survey research a type of study where a group of people chosen to represent some larger population are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic psychophysiological methods research that focuses on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior Naturalistic observation is utilized to examine a situation in its natural habitat without interference of any sort. What are some disadvantages of naturalistic observation? psychophysiological methods research that focuses on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior. Experiment: a process in which an investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for participants and then studies and compares the outcomes independent variable: the variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment dependent variable: the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation Experimental group: the group of subjects who are exposed to all experimental conditions indicating the independent variable Control group: the group of subject who are exposed to all experimental conditions except the independent variable Samestone Group: to see if children are reliable to give testimony in a courtroom based on suggestive questioning DID NOT touch, tear, throw or break anything during his brief visits in the day-care- classroom 176/2 =88 for control group and experiential group -Suggestive Questions ? independent variable, questions asked in a way that steered you toward an answer -Control” neutral questions -Dependent variable: # of factual errors the children made in the 5th interview -Double blind: raters/interviewers and subjects both don’t know of the experimental conditions of which the chile has been assigned Result >50% of the experiential group : said that Sam stone had torn the book, or gotten the teddy bear dirty(didn’t happen in his visit but was asked with suggestive questioning) 10% of the control group : accurately described the events that occurred during Sam Stone’s visit Repeated exposure to suggestive questioning can produce a high rate of factual error in the recollections of young children Children’ memories can be influence by suggestions of an adult Children CAN recall memories and ACCURATELY report an event if the situation remains FREE of suggestive questioning or leading questions. Margaret Kelly Michaels > Wee Care Nursery School Abuse Trial 10/8/1984:aspiring actress was a teacher Charged with child abuse and molesting Should have forensic evidence of children Prosecutors, Judge was using suggestive questioning which improperly pushed children to accrue her theses Crimes Families would talk about her in font of the kids made kids be reinforced to say certain things Boy accused her first with the anal thermometer a girl who got bruises on her leg( form seesaw) Both accused her which started the investigation Children were talking amongst each other Children were taught to say certain answer ? costed michael’s innocence Sample: the group of participants chosen for the experiment Field study : a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting Laboratory study: a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant Advantages:controlled setting Disadvantages; limits to it Chapter 2 Earliest Development monozygotic twins: twins who are genetically identical. dizygotic twins: twins who are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time. dominant trait: the one trait that is expressed when two competing traits are present. recessive trait: a trait within an organism that is present, but is not expressed. Genotype: the underlying combination of genetic material present (but not outwardly visible) in an organism. phenotype : an observable trait; the trait that is actually seen Homozygous: inheriting from parents similar genes for a given trait. Heterozygous: inheriting from parents different forms of a gene for a given trait. (p.g 50) PKU, a disease that causes brain damage and mental retardation, is produced by a single pair of genes inherited from one’s mother and father. (a) if neither parent carries a gene for the disease, a child cannot develop PKU. (b) even if one parent carries the recessive gene, but the other doesn’t, the child cannot inherit the disease. (c) however, if both parents carry the recessive gene, there is a one in four chance that the child will have PKU (p.g 51) Hemophilia inheriting -- Happen in the X-linked genes (p.g 52- 53) Different type of diseased P.g 54 There is about prenatal testing: ultrasound sonography: a process in which high-frequency sound waves scan the mother’s womb to produce an image of the unborn baby, whose size and shape can then be assessed. chorionic villus sampling (CVS): a test used to find genetic defects that involves taking samples of hair-like material that surrounds the embryo. Amniocentesis: the process of identifying genetic defects by examining a small sample of fetal cells drawn by a needle inserted into the amniotic fluid surrounding the unborn fetus P.g 57 DNA Based Genetic Tests Temperament: patterns of arousal and emotionality that represent consistent and enduring characteristics in an individual multifactorial transmission: the determination of traits by a combination of both genetic and environmental factors in which a genotype provides a range within which a phenotype may be expressed. What is EPIGENETICS Epigenetics is an emerging area or scientific research that shows how environmental influences- children's experiencesactually affect the expression of their genes. Nature Vs. Nurture Behavior genetic: the field Twin study: the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins. Adoption study: seeks to discover weather behavioral and psychological characteristics and adopted children are more like these of these adoptive parent or biological parents Adoptive parents provided the home environment Biological parents contributed their heredity Heredity-Environment Correlations Passive genotype- environment correlations: occur because biological parents provided a rearing environment for the child. Evocative genotype-environment correlations: occur because a child’s genetically-influenced characteristics elicit certain types of environments. Active(niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations: occur when children seek out environments that are compatible and stimulating and suited for their genetically influenced abilities. The Epigenetic View and Gene * Environment (G*E) Interaction Epigenetic view: development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment Gene * environment (G*E) INTERACTION: THE INTERACTION OF A SPECIFIC MEASURED VARIATION IN THE dna AND A SPECIFIC MEASURED ASPECT OF THE ENVIRONMENT The epigenetic mechanisms involve the actual molecular modification of the DNA strand as a result of environmental inputs in ways that alter gene functioning. P.g 65 P.g 66 P.g 69 The Moment of Conception Fertilization: the process by which a sperm and an ovum—the male and female gametes, respectively—join to form a single new cell. P.g pregnancy Problem A miscarriage—known as a spontaneous abortion—occurs when pregnancy ends before the developing child is able to survive outside the mother’s womb. The prenatal Environment: Threats to Development South America believed eats the meat of certain kinds of animal, risk of look like those animal Teratogen: an environmental agent that produces a birth defect( such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor) Mother's DIET: Bigeye tuna. King mackerel. Marlin. Orange roughy. Swordfish. Shark. Tilefish. Mother’s Age: More women are giving birth later in life than was true just two or three decades ago. The cause for this change is largely due to transformations in society, as more women choose to continue their education with advanced degrees and to start careers prior to giving birth to their first child.Older mothers are also considerably more likely to give birth to children with Down syndrome, a form of mental retardation. Mother's Prenatal Support: Adolescent mothers need psychological support. Mother’s Health - Rubella , Chicken box, Gonorrhea, AID Mother’s Drug use Thalidomide (morning sick) cause baby born abnormal with upper arm artificial hormone DES (diethylstilbestrol) was frequently prescribed to prevent miscarriage causing vaginal or cervical cancer and had more difficulties during their pregnancies. Sons of the mothers who had taken DES had their own problems, including a higher-than- average rate of reproductive difficulties marijuana used during pregnancy can restrict the oxygen that reaches the fetus. Its use can lead to infants who are irritable, nervous, and easily disturbed. Children exposed to marijuana prenatally show learning and memory deficits at the age of 10 cocaine use by pregnant women led to an epidemic of thousands of so-called crack babies. Cocaine produces an intense restriction of the arteries leading to the fetus, causing a significant reduction in the flow of blood and oxygen, increasing the risks of fetal death and a number of birth defects and disabilities Mother’s USE OF ALCOHOL AND TOBACCO fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)a disorder caused by the pregnant mother consuming substantial quantities of alcohol during pregnancy, potentially resulting in mental retardation and delayed growth in the child. fetal alcohol effects (FAE) a condition in which children display some, though not all, of the problems of fetal alcohol syndrome due to the mother’s consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Pregnant women who drink alcohol place their unborn children at risk. Chapter 3 Neonates: the term used for newborns About 266 days after conception, a protein called corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) triggers (for some still unknown reason) the release of various hormones, and the process that leads to birth begins. oxytocin, which is released by the mother’s pituitary gland. When the concentration of oxytocin becomes high enough, the mother’s uterus begins periodic contractions Braxton–Hicks contractions, are sometimes called “false labor” The Three stages of Labor Episiotomy: an incision sometimes made to increase the size of the opening of the vagina to allow the baby to pass Birth: From Fetus to Neonate Physician Vigina Apgar Apgar scale a standard measurement system that looks for a variety of indications of good health in newborns Anoxia: a restriction of oxygen to the baby, lasting a few minutes during the birth process, that can produce brain damage (p.g 89) Newborn Medical Screening--- screened for 29 disorders Bonding: close physical and emotional contact between parent and child during the period immediately following birth, argued by some to affect later relationship strength Breast Milk (p.g 91)Alternative Birthing Procedures Lamaze birthing techniques.( rare among members of lower income groups, including many members of ethnic minorities. Parents in these groups may not have the transportation, time, or financial resources to attend childbirth preparation classes. The result is that women in lower-income groups tend to be less prepared for the events of labor and consequently may suffer more pain during childbirth (Different time different error) Bradley method. Hypnobirthing- a method of using hypnosis to relax and manage pain during labor and birth. Water Birthing- risk of infect from the purified water -A doula is trained to provide emotional, psychological, and educational support during birth. ( A doula does not replace an obstetrician or midwife, and does not do medical exams. Instead, doulas, who are often wellversed in birthing alternatives, provide the mother with support and make sure parents are aware of alternatives and possibilities regarding the birth process.) (95) Birth Complication preterm infants: infants who are born prior to 38 weeks after conception (also known as premature infants) low-birthweight infants infants who weigh less than 2,500 grams (around 5 1/2 pounds) at birth small-for-gestational-age infants: infants who, because of delayed fetal growth, weigh 90 percent (or less) of the average weight of infants of the same gestational age (Normative data refers to information derived from a sample or population that represents typical or average performance, behavior, or characteristics within a specific group12. It serves as a benchmark for comparing individual scores or measurements against the broader population.) distress syndrome (RDS), with potentially fatal consequences. very-low-birthweight infants: infants who weigh less than 1,250 grams (around 2.25 pounds) or, regardless of weight, have been in the womb less than 30 weeks Postmature (Too late, too large) Blood support and nutrient become less postmature infants: infants still unborn 2 weeks after the mother’s due date P.g 9 Cesarean Delivery: Intervening in the process of Birth Cesarean delivery: a birth in which the baby is surgically removed from the uterus, rather than traveling through the birth canal breech position transverse position fetal monitor: a device that measures the baby’s heartbeat during labor StillBirth and Infant Mortality: The Tragedy of premature Death Stillbirth: the delivery of a child who is not alive, occurring in 1 delivery in 115 in the United States infant mortality: death within the first year of life P.g 103 Postpartum Depression: (Navy blue) Postpartum depression, a period of Deep depression following the birth of a child, affects some 10 percent of all new mothers. For example, Andrea Yates, a mother in Texas who was charged with drowning all five of her children in a bathtub, said that postpartum depression led to her actions. The sucking and swallowing reflexes allow newborns to begin to ingest food immediately after birth. reflexes: unlearned, organized, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli Early learning capabilities classical conditioning: a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response operant conditioning: a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its association with positive or negative consequences habituation: the decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus