Introduction to the Human Body Exam 1 Study Guide

Exam 1 Study Guide Chapter 1: Introduction to the Human Body Anatomy: the study of the structures of the body. Gross Anatomy: the study of the larger structures of the body. Microscopic Anatomy: study of structures that can be observed only with the use of a microscope. Physiology: the study of the functions of those structures. -Function reflects structure, & structure determines function. Hierarchy of Structural Levels (from smallest to largest):       Chemical Level Cellular Level Tissue Level Organ Level Organ System Level Organism Level Cell: smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism. Tissue: group of many similar cells that work together to perform a specific function. Organ: anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of TWO or more TISSUE types. Organ System: group of organs that work together to perform major functions or meet physiological needs of the body. Organism: living being that has cellular structure & can independently perform all physiological functions necessary for life. 4 Main Themes in Physiology: 1) 2) 3) 4) Structure determines function. Energy is required to maintain life. Information flows between organ systems to coordinate function. Organ systems maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis: body’s ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment. Necessary Life Functions: Organization, Metabolism, Responsiveness, Movement, Development, Growth, Reproduction. Metabolism Exam 1 Study Guide   Catabolism: process by which larger more complex substances are broken down into smaller simpler molecules. Anabolism: the process by which smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger, more complex substances. Control Mechanisms:   Negative Feedback: includes homeostatic control mechanisms, shuts off original stimulus or reduces its intensity (think of household thermostat). Positive Feedback: increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther, only happens in blood clotting or child birth. Anatomical Position: standing straight up, palms face anteriorly, knees, elbows & neck are straight, toes point anteriorly but the finger tips point inferiorly. Directional Terms: Body Planes: Dorsal & Ventral Body Cavities: Exam 1 Study Guide Regions & Quadrants of the Peritoneal Cavity: Serous Membrane: thin membrane that cover the walls & organs in the thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities.      Parietal: serosa forms the outer wall of the cavity. Visceral: serosa covers the visceral organ. Pericardial: heart. Pleural: lungs. Peritoneal: abdominal. Exam 1 Study Guide Chapter 2: Basic Biochemistry Matter: anything that occupies space & has mass. Mass: the amount of matter in an object- CONSTANT. Weight: depends on gravity- VARIABLE. Energy: the capacity to do work.   Kinetic Energy: energy in action. Potential Energy: stored energy. Forms of Energy:     Chemical Energy: energy in bonds. Electrical Energy: energy in charged particles. Mechanical Energy: movement of matter. Radiant Energy: energy that travels in waves. Elements: substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods. Sub-atomic Particles: particles that make up an atom. Atomic #: # of protons Atomic Weight: average mass of all isotopes in a given element Atomic Mass: sum of protons & neutrons in an element Molecules: combinations of 2 or more of the SAME element. Compounds: 2 or more DIFFERENT kinds of atoms bound together. Mixtures: 2 or more components that are physically intermixed. Solvent: substance in greatest amount. Exam 1 Study Guide Solute: substance in smaller amount. Homogenous: same composition throughout. Heterogeneous: composition is dissimilar in different areas of the mixture. Mixtures VS. -No chemical bonding Compounds -Chemical Bonding -Can be separated by physical means -Can only be separated by breaking bonds -hetero or homo -ALWAYS homo Valance Shell: outermost shell of an atom.  First shell can hold 2 electrons, each shell after that can hold up to 8 electrons. Chemical Bond: exchange or sharing of electrons between atoms. Inert: if a valance shell is full. Chemically Reactive Elements: do not have their outermost energy level fully occupied by electrons. Types of Bonds:    Ionic Bonds: formed when 1 or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another.  Cation: atoms that loses electrons becomes (+)  Anion: atom that gains electrons becomes (-) Covalent Bonds: atoms share electrons.  Nonpolar Covalent Bond: electrons are shared equally.  Polar Covalent Bonds: electrons are shared unequally. Hydrogen Bonds: not really bonds. Occurs when a hydrogen atom already covalently bonded to something is attracted to another electron needy atom. Chemical Reactions: change of a substance into a new one that has a different chemical identity; it occurs when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken. Types of Reactions:    Synthesis Reaction: A + B = AB Decomposition Reactions: AB = A + B Exchange Reactions: AB + C = AC + B Oxidation-Reduction Reactions: reactions where food fuels are broken down for energy.   Exchange: the reactant losing electrons is the electron donor & is oxidized. Synthesis: the reactant getting the electrons is the electron acceptor & is reduced. Exam 1 Study Guide Cellular Respiration: major pathway by which glucose is broken down for energy in body cells. Energy Flow of Chemical Reactions   Exergonic Reactions: release energy, catabolic & oxidative reactions. Endergonic Reactions: absorb energy, anabolic reactions. Reaction Rate:     Increase temperature, Increase rate of reaction Increase concentration, Increase rate of reaction Particle Size: smaller particles make faster reactions, larger particles make slower reactions. Catalysts: substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions, but themselves are not changed. Organic Compounds: always contain Carbon, always covalently bonded. Inorganic Compounds: all other compounds, salts, water, acids, bases. Water is the Universal Solvent. Salts: substance that dissociates into ions other than H+ or OHAcid: substance that release hydrogen ions in solution. Base: substance that releases hydroxyl ions in solution. pH: measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Neutralization: When acids and bases are combined – it results into a water and a salt. Buffers: chemical systems that maintain body pH.  A rise in pH make the blood more alkaline. A drop in pH makes it more acidic. Organic Compounds: 1. 2. 3. 4. Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids Monomers: subunits of organic compounds. Polymers: chains of monomers that make up organic compounds. Hydrolysis: when bonds are broken, water is added. Dehydration Synthesis: when bonds are formed, water is removed. Exam 1 Study Guide Carbohydrates: provide the body with ready, easily used source of cellular fuel, used to make ATP.    Monosaccharides: Simple sugars Disaccharides: double sugar, 2 monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis. Polysaccharides: polymers of simple sugars, linked by dehydration synthesis.  Important storage of energy as glycogen. Lipids: 1. Triglycerides: 3 fatty acid chains bound to glycerol.  Nonpolar, do not interact with water.  Provide the body’s most efficient form of stored energy.  Saturated Fats: no double bonds.  Unsaturated Fats: varying # of double bonds. 2. Phospholipids: modified triglycerides. Main component of the cell membrane! 3. Steroids: different from fats in structure & function  Cholesterol is the “base steroid” from which your body produces other steroids.  Cholesterol is the most important steroid in the body!!! Proteins: basic structural material in the body.     Amino Acids: building block of proteins. Connected together by dehydration synthesis into a peptide bond. Types of proteins: fibrous (for structural things, collagen, keratin) globular (for functional things, hemoglobin, insulin) Biological Catalysts: substances that regulate and accelerate the rate of reactions. Substrate: substance on which an enzyme acts. Nucleic Acids: include DNA & RNA.    DNA Structure: Monomer = nucleotide. Nucleotides are composed of  Phosphate group  5C Sugar  Nitrogenous-Base Adenine & Thymine, Guanine & Cytosine (DNA) Adenine & Uracil, Guanine & Cytosine (RNA) Chapter 3: The Cellular Level of Organization Cell Theory: Exam 1 Study Guide 1. 2. 3. 4. All living things are made up of one or more cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function. All cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells contain the hereditary information which is passed from cell to “daughter cell during cell division. 5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition. Plasma Membrane: barrier that separates the intracellular fluid from the extracellular fluid. Cell Membrane Components: cholesterol- helps stabilize the membrane. Glycolipids & glycoprotetinscovering on cell surface. Integral proteins: proteins firmly inserted into the membrane. Peripheral Proteins: not embedded in bilayer. Cell Junctions: 1. Tight Junctions: integral proteins in plasma membrane of adjacent cells that fuse together forming an impermeable junction between the cells. 2. Desmosomes: anchoring junctions bind adjacent cells together. 3. Gap Junctions: a communication junction between cells. Interstitial Fluid: extracellular fluid that surrounds the cell & contains the nutrients the cell needs. Diffusion: molecules move down their concentration gradient.   Simple Diffusion: lipid bilayer allows small substances down their concentration gradient. Facilitated Diffusion: substances cross the cell membrane with the help of proteins (channel or carrier).  Carrier Proteins: more selective, only allow 1 type of molecule to cross.  Channel Proteins: less selective. Osmosis: diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.  Aquaporins: protein channels that water passes freely through. Tonicity: ability of a solution to change the shape or tone of cells by altering the cells internal water volume.    Hypertonic: solution has a solute concentration higher than another solution. Isotonic: solution has a solute concentration equal to another solution. Hypotonic: solution has a solute concentration lower than another solution. Active Processes: require the use of energy to transport molecules across the membrane. Exam 1 Study Guide       Primary Active Transport: hydrolysis of ATP=phosphorylation of the transport protein. This causes the protein to change shape so it can pump the solute across the membrane.  Allows solute to be moved AGAINST concentration gradient.  Example: Sodium-Potassium Pump  3 sodium ions are exported from cell, 2 potassium ions imported into cell. Secondary Active Transport: transport of one solute against concentration gradient by using energy generated by gradient of another solute transport. Chemical Gradient: passive movement of ions from area of high concentration to low concentration. Electrical Gradient: ions attracted to areas of opposite charge. Electrochemical Gradient: electrical & chemical gradient combined. Vesicular Transport: fluids containing large particles & macromolecules are transported across cell membranes inside membranous sacs (called vesicles)  Endocytosis: when cell envelops extracellular materials using its cell membrane.  Phagocytosis: cell takes in large particle  Pinocytosis: cell takes in small particles in fluid.  Exocytosis: material destined for export is packaged into a vesicle inside the cell. Membrane Potential: voltage across the membrane.   Voltage: energy resulting from the separation of oppositely charged particles. Resting Membrane Potential: in resting state, all body plasma membranes exhibit this.  For this reason, all cells are said to be polarized. Plasma Membrane Receptors: Membrane Receptors are protein binding sites on the plasma membrane that function in contact signaling and chemical signaling. Chemical Signaling: Plasma membrane receptors that binds to Ligands. Ligands are chemicals that bind specifically to plasma membrane receptors.  Ligands can be one of the following: 1. Neurotransmitters – nervous system signals 2. Hormones – endocrine system signals 3. Paracrines – chemicals that act locally and are rapidly destroyed Cytoplasm: cellular material between plasma membrane & nucleus. 1. Cytosol: fluid organelles float in. 2. Organelles: metabolic machinery of the cell. 3. Inclusions: substances that may/may not be present. Organelles: can be membranous or nonmembranous. Membranous organelles work together to maintain the life of the cell creating an endomembrane system. Exam 1 Study Guide Endoplasmic Reticulum: functions as a manufacturing & packaging system, network of membranes found throughout the cell and connected to the nucleus.   Smooth ER: acts as a storage organelle, important in creation & storage of lipids & steroids. Rough ER: important in synthesis & packaging of proteins. Ribosomes are attached to membrane. Golgi Apparatus: manipulates products from rough ER & produces lysosomes. Organizes, modifies, packages & tags proteins for transport throughout cell or exported by exocytosis. Lysosome: organelle that contains enzymes that break down & digest unneeded cellular components, such as a damaged organelle. Also digests foreign material. Peroxisome: contain enzymes that detoxify harmful substances and neutralize free radicals. Mitochondria: energy conversion factories of the cell, has lipid bilayer membrane, produces ATP (the cell’s major energy currency). Cytoskeleton: gives shape to the cell & provide it with capability to carry out cellular movements & aids in cell division. 1. Microfilaments 2. Intermediate Filaments 3. Microtubules Centrosome: acts as the microtubule organizing center. It contains paired centrioles that function in generating microtubules and organizing the mitotic spindle in cell division. Cellular Extensions:    Cilia: whip-like extensions that occur on exposed surfaces of certain cells, moves substances across cell’s surface. Flagella: functions to propel the cell along (sperm) Microvilli: finger-like projections on plasma membrane, increase surface area. Nucleus: control center of cell, contains blueprints for synthesis of proteins in the body in its genetic library. 3 regions: 1. Nuclear Envelope: double membrane barrier separated by fluid filled space, outer layer studded with ribosomes. 2. Nucleolus: where assembly of ribosomes begins. 3. Chromatin: made of DNA, histone proteins & RNA chains. Fundamental units=nucleosomes (8 histone proteins wrapped together by DNA strands.) Cell Cycle: series of changes a cell goes through from time it is formed to when it is replicated. 1. Interphase: cell is growing & carrying out metabolic activity. Exam 1 Study Guide 2. Mitosis: cell divides into 2 identical cells (division of nucleus) Interphase: period from cell formation to cell division.    G1: growing & metabolically active. S Phase: growth & DNA synthesis. G2: growth & final prep for division. DNA Replication: 1. Initiation: The two complementary strands are separated. Special enzymes, including helicase, untwist and separate the two strands of DNA. 2. Elongation: Each strand becomes a template along which a new complementary strand is built. DNA polymerase brings in the correct bases to complement the template strand, synthesizing a new strand base by base. 3. Termination: Once the two original strands are bound to their own, finished, complementary strands, DNA replication is stopped and the two new identical DNA molecules are complete. Cell Division: Mitosis 1. Prophase: chromosomes condense & become visible, spindle fibers come from centrosomes, nuclear envelope breaks downs, nucleolus disappears. 2. Metaphase: centrosomes are at opposites sides of cell, chromosomes are lined up in the middle. 3. Anaphase: chromatids break apart, chromatids are pulled to opposite sides of cell. 4. Telophase: chromosomes arrive at opposite ends of cell & begin to DE condense, nuclear envelop material surrounds each set of chromosomes, mitotic spindle breaks down. 5. Cytokinesis: a cleavage furrow separates the daughter cells. Gene: segment of DNA molecule that carries instructions for creating 1 polypeptide chain. Role of RNA: decodes instructions from DNA & makes proteins. 1. Messenger RNA (mRNA): carries transcript of code to cytoplasm. 2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): forms the ribosome subunits that provide the site of protein synthesis. 3. Transfer RNA (tRNA): molecules that ferry the amino acids to the ribosomes. Protein Synthesis: 1. Transcription: where DNA information is encoded in mRNA. 2. Translation: where the information carried by mRNA is decoded and used to assemble polypeptides.