A&P Lecture Test #1

Page 1 of 13 A&P Lecture Test #1 Anatomy – the study of the structure of something Physiology – the study of the function of things Embryology – the study of embryos (the first eight weeks of development) Developmental biology – the development of the zygote to death Cell biology – the study of cellular functions and structures Histology – the study of the microscopic structure of the body (tissues using microscopes) Gross anatomy – (big) the study of structure, things you can actually see with the naked eye (without a microscope) Systemic anatomy – study of all of the organs related to a particular function (system); ie integumentary system, muscular system, etc. Regional anatomy – the study of ALL of the systems of one particular part of the body ie. the head’s muscles, bones, tissues, skin, etc. Surface anatomy – the structure of things you can see without opening the body (visualization and palpation) Imaging anatomy – learning the anatomy as you see it through x-rays, ct scans, ultrasounds, MRI, etc. Pathological anatomy – the study of what goes wrong in the body; structural changes associated with disease Neurophysiology – function of the nervous system Endocrinology – how hormones work Cardiovascular physiology – the study of the heart and blood vessels Immunology – the study of the immune system and how it fights of pathogens Respiratory physiology – study of the lungs and how they work Renal physiology – the study of the kidneys Exercise physiology – changes in cell and organ functions due to muscular activity Pathophysiology – changes in function associated with disease and aging Level of structural organization and body systems:     Chemical level Cellular level Tissue level Organ level Page 2 of 13  Organismal level Integumentary system (the skin) – primary function is protection from the outside world; also protects from abrasions, the sun, helps retain water, largest sensory organ, makes vitamin D, regulates temperature by sweating, insulates us, made of skin, glands, hair, and nails Skeletal system – all of the bones, joints, and various cartilages; primary function is for support and protection, all of vital organs are at least partially enclosed in bones; stores calcium Muscular system – all of the skeletal muscles which are attached to the bones; allows us to move, gives us posture, produces heat (shivering) Nervous system – the brain and spinal cord; very important it is one of the two control systems in the body, collects information and sends out signals to the body Endocrine system – the other control center in the body; uses hormones, doesn’t respond as fast as the nervous system; made of glands and tissues Cardiovascular system – heart and blood vessels, has many functions, transports oxygen from lungs out to tissues, brings carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs, also moves water and nutrients throughout the body, waste to kidneys to be eliminated Lymphatic system – brings lymph throughout the body Respiratory system – brings oxygen from the atmosphere to the blood; responsible for gas exchange, oxygen needs to get into the blood and carbon dioxide to get out of the blood Digestive system – GI tract, runs from mouth to anus, breakdowns food into molecules, useful molecules are digested, everything left over is eliminated Urinary system – eliminates waste (urea), excess salts Reproductive system – function is to produce sex cells (ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, testes, ductus deferens, and penis) Metabolism – the sum of all chemical reactions in the body (anabolism + catabolism = metabolism)   Anabolism – chemical reactions that build up larger molecules (consume energy) Catabolism – chemical reactions that break down complex molecules to harvest energy or digestion Responsiveness – the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes; maintaining homeostasis Movement – motion of the while body and individual organs (heart) Growth: 1. 2. 3. 4. Appositional growth – growth from the surface Interstitial growth – growth from within Hyperplasia – increase in cell number Hypertrophy – increase in cell size Page 3 of 13 5. ECM (extracellular matrix) – growth by increase in material between cells Differentiation – when a cell goes from a nonspecialized state to a specialized state (stem cells) Reproduction – the production of a new individual Homeostasis – condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment; homeostasis is maintained by regulatory process Extracellular fluid (ECF) – fluid outside cells       Interstitial fluid – extracellular fluid in the narrow spaces between cells Plasma – extracellular fluid in blood Lymph – extracellular fluid inside lymphatic vessels Cerebrospinal fluid – extracellular fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord Synovial fluid – extracellular fluid inside joints Aqueous humor – extracellular fluid in the eye Intracellular fluid (ICF) – fluid inside cells (cytosol) Negative feedback system – reverses a change in the controlled condition (response is the opposite of the stimulus) Receptor – detects change Control center (the brain) – knows which response to take Effectors – cell or organ that can affect the controlled condition Positive feedback system – the response to the stimulus is to reinforce the stimulus (childbirth, fire) Anatomical position – standing straight up with palms forward Supine – lying face up Prone – lying face down Superior – above Inferior – below Anterior – in front of Posterior – behind Ventral – toward the front (belly) Dorsal – toward the back Medial – closer to the midline of the body Lateral – away from the midline of the body Proximal – closer to the point of attachment Distal – further from the point of attachment Superficial – close to the surface Deep – further from the surface Parietal – lining the walls of a cavity Visceral – lining the organs in a cavity Transverse plane – cutting the body into superior and inferior portions Page 4 of 13 Frontal plane – cutting the body into front and back portions (anterior and posterior portions) Sagittal (midsagittal) plane – cutting the body into equal right and left portions Parasagittal plane – cutting the body into right and left portions but more on one side than the other Oblique plane – cutting in a random plane Long section – Cross section – Cranial cavity – the head, contains the brain (connected to the vertebral canal) Vertebral canal – formed by the vertebral column and contains the spinal cord Thoracic cavity – heart and lungs       Pleural cavity – thin fluid filled sac surrounding each lung Pleura – membrane lining the cavity Visceral pleura – portion sitting on the surface of the organ Parietal pleura – hollow space surrounding the organ Mediastinum – space in between the lungs (the heart is in the mediastinum) Pericardium – fluid filled sac surrounding the heart Diaphragm – the muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities Abdominopelvic cavity – the digestive organs, the bladder and the internal reproductive organs   Peritoneal cavity – fluid filled sac surrounding most of the digestive organs Peritoneum – the membrane that lines the peritoneal cavity Page 5 of 13 Epithelia Tissue – ling and cover things, good barriers Connective Tissues – protects and support the body and it’s organs; binds things together Muscular Tissues – contract and generate a force; generates heat that warm the body Nervous Tissue – detects changes inside and outside the body and responds by generating electrical signals (excitability) Cell Junction – any point of contact between two cells      Tight junction – (stitches) web-like strands that fuse together the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes to seal off passageways between adjacent cells; seals off areas in the body (weak) Adherens junctions – form adhesion belts within cells; microfilaments attached to proteins called cadherins (adhere things together) link together to resist tension (very strong) Desmosomes – attach cells to one another (very strong connection) Hemidesmosomes – half a desmosome; resemble desmosomes but do not link adjacent cells; anchors a cell within a tissue to the extracellular matrix Gap junctions – allow cells to communicate with each other; contains connexons that connect to each other to form a tube; found in the heart Epithelia tissues (epithelium) – all line and cover things      Act as barriers and separate things as in the lungs and intestinal tract Very cellular, very little extracellular matrix (ECM) Most are exposed to the environment and sheds at a fast rate therefore there’s a high rate of mitosis Most cancers are of epithelia origin Epithelia cells lie on a basement membrane (two parts o Basal lamina – portion secreted by the epithelia cells o    Reticular lamina – portion secreted by the connective tissue underneath the epithelia Epithelia are avascular (no blood vessels); nutrients come from the connective tissue underneath the epithelia (limits the thickness of epithelia) Epithelia has a free surface called the apical surface Opposite of the apical surface is the basal surface (basement membrane) Epithelia tissue classification:  Number of layers: o Simple epithelium – one layer of cells o o Stratified epithelium – more than one layer of cells Page 6 of 13  Shape of cells: o Squamous cells – cell is very wide and not very tall o Cuboidal cells – same height, width and depth o Columnar cells – much taller than they are wide, like columns Types of epithelium:   Simple Squamous Epithelium – single layer of flat cells (look like fried eggs or a tile floor) o Thin, flat tissue o Brings two things really close together or makes a slippers surface for two things o Good for gas exchange; found in the alveoli in the lungs o Provides a smooth surface Simple Cuboidal Epithelium – one layer of cube shaped cells o Function is absorption and secretion o  Found in glands such as the thyroid gland; also in the kidney tubules Simple Columnar Epithelium – one layer of very tall cells o Contains goblet cells which secrete mucous o o Some columnar epithelium contain microvilli (fingerlike projections) which increases surface area to facilitate absorption Other columnar epithelium contain cilia (fingerlike projections) which moves o substances across the apical surface of the cell (they actually beat) The function depends on if they have cilia or microvilli  Nonciliated Columnar Epithelium is for absorption and secretion and found in the small intestines  Ciliated Columnar Epithelium is for movement of mucous across the surface and is found in the uterine tubes   Stratified Squamous Epithelium (most common type of epithelium) –lots of layers of cells and the cells near the surface are flat o Functions as a protective barrier from micros (germs) o Protects you from friction o Found in the vagina, skin, mouth, throat, esophagus Transitional Epithelium – the shape of the cells change o Cells capable of transitioning between cuboidal and squamous shapes o It is a stratified epithelium o Function is to allow for distention (stretching) Page 7 of 13 o  Found in the bladder Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium – appears stratified because the nuclei are at different levels (falsely stratified); also some cells don’t reach the apical surface; every cell touches the basemen membrane therefore this type of epithelium is technically simple o Function is to move things across the surface o Cilia moves mucous across its surface o Found in the trachea Connective Tissues – most abundant and most diverse class of tissue in the body     Mostly made up of the extracellular matrix (ECM) Extracellular matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substance Cells are widely spaced Connective tissue is highly vascular (lots of blood vessels) Three types of fibers: 1. Collagen – similar to rope; used to resist a pull (tension) 2. Elastic fibers – made of a protein called elastin a. They are stretchy; able to stretch and recoil (like a spring) b. They store energy 3. Reticular fibers – highly branched and form 3D meshes Blasts – immature, active cells Cytes – mature, inactive cells Fibroblasts – secrete fibers Leukocytes – white blood cells which are immune cells Macrophages – comes in and eats old cell parts Adipocytes – fat cells Chondrocytes – cartilage cells Osteocytes – bone cells Mesenchyme – embryonic connective tissue from which all other connective tissue come from (all connective tissue start as mesenchyme) Mucous connective tissue – found in the umbilical cord Page 8 of 13 Twelve types of connective tissue – 3 loose, 3 dense, 3 cartilages, 1 bone and 2 bloods Loose Connective Tissues:  Areolar Connective Tissue – has loosely spaced fibers o Found under every epithelium in the body; hypodermis o  Reticular Connective Tissue – has lots of reticular fibers (black lines) o Form the stroma (framework) of soft organs o  Function is to provide nutrients to the epithelia tissue Found in the liver Adipose Connective Tissue – has cells called adipocytes which stores triglycerides; stores energy o Function is insulation o Found in the hypodermis Dense Connective Tissues:    Dense Regular Connective Tissue – has lots of collage fibers o Fibers are arranged in the same directions o Allows the tissue to resist tension in a single direction o Found in tendons Dense Irregular Connective Tissue – o Fibers run in different directions o Allows the tissue to resist tension in several different directions o Found in the dermis Elastic Connective Tissue – very similar to dense regular tissue; runs in one direction but contains elastic fibers o Function is to stretch and recoils back o Found in the aorta Cartilage (cell is called a chondrocyte; in a lacuna):  Hyaline Cartilage – o Fibers cannot be seen; weakest type of cartilage o Function is to provide a smooth surface at the end of long bones; support in o the trachea Found at the ends of long bones and in the trachea  Fibrocartilage – toughest type of cartilage o Found in areas of the body that are under stress (intervertebral disks)  Elastic Cartilage – (similar to hyaline cartilage); very flexible o Function is to allow for flexibility, strength and elasticity Page 9 of 13 o Found in the ear * Surrounding hyaline and elastic cartilage is a layer of dense irregular connective tissue called the perichondrium; not found surrounding fibrocartilage. Perichondrium contains blood vessels and is the source of new cartilage cells. Since cartilage has no blood supply, it heals poorly following injury. Bone:   Type of connective tissue found in your bones Function is support and protection Blood:        Function is to transport nutrients and waste throughout the body Type of connective tissue that has no fibers unless is clotting Found in blood vessels and the heart Red blood cells (RBC) transport oxygen White blood cells (WBC) are immune cells Platelets are leftovers of big cells that help with clotting Plasma is the extracellular matrix which is where everything except oxygen is transported Membranes :  Mucous membranes – when the body cavity opens to the outside of the body o Lines the digestive, respiratory, reproductive and urinary tracts  Serous membranes – line cavities that do not open to the outside of the body o Pleura – serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity and covering the lungs   o Parietal layer – layer attached to and lining the cavity wall o Visceral layer – the layer that covers and adheres to the organs within the cavity o Pericardium – the serous membrane lining the heart cavity and covering the o heart Peritoneum – the serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity and covering the abdominal organs; the peritoneum is the largest serous membrane Cutaneous membrane – or skin covers the entire surface of the body Synovial membrane – line the synovial cavities (the joints) Muscular Tissues – made out of specialized cells called muscle fibers; the fibers are able to contract  Skeletal Muscle Tissue – Page 10 of 13   o Function is voluntary contraction o Cells are cylindrical; multinucleated o Contains striations o Breathing is considered a voluntary contraction because a person can choose to o stop breathing (hold their breath) Found attached to bones Cardiac Muscle Tissue – o Found only in the heart o Function is involuntary contraction (the person cannot control it) o Cells are branched, mono-nucleated o Contains striations o Connected by intercalated discs which contains desmosomes and gap junctions Smooth Muscle Tissue – o Function is involuntary contraction everywhere except the heart o Found in blood vessels o Involuntary contraction o DOES NOT have striations Nervous Tissue:   Function is communication Found in the brain and spinal cords Integumentary system – primary function is protection from the outside world         Dry, salty environment prevents micros from growing and causing infection Protects from abrasion/friction Good at retraining water Maintains temperature (adipose tissue insulates us, blood vessels in skin dilate and constrict, sweating) Manufactures vitamin D (with exposure to sunlight) Largest sensory organ (largest organ overall) Helps to protect from ultraviolet light (pigment melanin absorbs UV light) Epidermis – the tissue that makes up the epidermis is a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium o Four types of cells found in the epidermis  Keratinocytes – 90% of the cells, undergo keratinization, produces keratin  Keratin is a tough fibrous protein that provide protection Page 11 of 13    Come (corneum) o Layers of the epidermis:  Let’s (lucidum)  Get (granulosum)  Sun (spinosum)  Burned (basale)  o Melanocytes – make the pigment melanin (activity of melanocytes determines skin, hair, and eye color); function is to protect against ultraviolet light Intraepidermal macrophages (aka Langerhans cells) – immune cells that destroy any pathogens that may invade the skin (intraepidermal = inside the epidermis) Tactile epithelial cells (aka Merkel cells) – sensory cells that for a tactile disc which helps detect lite touch Stratum basale – deepest layer of the epidermis (on the basement membrane)  single layer of cells  cells undergo mitosis Stratum spinosum – the cells are attached to each other by desmosomes  Cells are still active (still alive) Stratum granulosum – the cells have dark staining granules in them  Cells are beginning to die here (apoptosis)  Cells are filling up with hyalin Stratum lucidum – clear layer where the cells no longer have a nucleus  Present only in thick skin Stratum corneum – dead cells waiting to be sloughed off Types of skin:   Thin skin (hairy skin) – the skin found in most places  Found everywhere except for the palmer surface of the hand and sole of the feet Thick skin (hairless skin) – found on the palmer surface of the hands and digits, soles of the feet and planter surface of the toes  Thick skin does not have hair follicles  Stratum corneum (thickest layer in think skin) is much thicker in thick skin compared to thin skin  Thick skin contains the layer of skin known as stratum lucidum which is not present in thin skin o Melanin is produced by melanocytes, everyone has the same number of o melanocytes but their activity determines how light or dark your skin is The pigment melanin is made from the amino acid tyrosine o Tyrosine has to be brought into the melanin granule Page 12 of 13 o o Albinism – when there is a partial or complete ability to make pigment (in type one the person lacks the enzyme tyrosinase which causes you to not be able to make melanin therefore skin, hair and eyes lack color) Vitiligo – disorder where patches of the skin lacks pigment (white patches)  Thought to be related to an immune system dysfunction in which antibodies attack the melanocytes Dermis – made out of two different connective tissues which lie in two different regions  Papillary region – first 20% of the dermis o Just under the epidermis o  Made out of areolar connective tissue Reticular region – other 80% of the dermis o Made out of dense irregular connective tissue o Reticular region of the dermis gives skin it’s strength Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) – made of areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue Accessory structures:   The basement membrane is wavy and the wave like structures are called dermal papilla The dermal papilla and the epidermal ridges interlock causing: o Several points of attachment (helps to anchor it) o Increases the amount of surface area so that nutrients and waste can cross over o In the dermal papilla there are capillary loops that loop up to bring blood o o Encapsulated nerve ending called the corpuscle of touch are found here; responsible for light touch Nerve endings are modified dendrites of sensory nerve o There’s also free nerve endings for pain and thermal sensation  In the reticular region of the dermis you have a lamellated (pacinian) corpuscle which detects pressure  Hair: o Hair root plexus – detect hair movement o Hair is found everywhere that you have thin skin o Hair is composed of dead keratinized cells o Hair shaft – everything above the surface of the skin o Hair root – below the surface o Hair follicle – below the level of the skin, has two parts Page 13 of 13 o Epithelial root sheath –made out of epithelia, maintains the barrier down to the follicle  Dermal root sheath – connective tissue supporting the epithelia Hair bulb: o At the base of the root Papilla of the hair is inside the bulb Made of areola connective tissue that brings blood to the cells that divide to make the hair; those cells make up the hair matrix  Melanocytes are found here as well Arrector pili muscle – attached to hair and erects hair (pulls it straight up)         Glands: o Sebaceous glands – found in association with hair follicles o o o  This is a smooth muscle so it’s involuntary Responds to fear or when your cold Goose bumps are the activation of the arrector pili muscle  Type of simple branched acinar bran  Makes an oily secretion called sebum (inhibits the growth of microbes) Eccrine sweat glands – located more superficially  Ducts open to the surface  Produce oily secretion called sweat  Function of sweat is to cool you off Apocrine sweat glands – located only in areas where hair growth starts at puberty  Do not become active until puberty  Associated with emotional sweating and sweating in response to sexual excitement  Makes the characteristic body odor Ceruminous glands – modified sweat glands in the ear canal that produce cerumen (ear wax) is thought to waterproof the ear and keep insects out Nails: o Nail root – below the skin, not visible; grows from the nail matrix o Nail body – sits on top of the epithelia; the visible portion of the nail o Free edge – free of the epithelia; extends past the finger or toe o o Nail bed (aka hyponicium) – portion underneath the nail body (it’s a stratified squamous epithelium, skin below the nail plate) Cuticle (aka eponychium) – stratum corneum of the epidermis that covers the o nail root Lunula – crescent shaped white structure in the nail