Study Guide for Anatomy and Physiology Chapters 1-4

Study Guide for Anatomy and Physiology Chapters 1-4 1. Gross vs. Microscopic Anatomy ● ● Gross Anatomy: The study of structures visible to the naked eye (e.g., organs, systems). Microscopic Anatomy: The study of structures at the cellular level (e.g., tissues, cells). 2. Physiology ● Definition: The study of the functions of living organisms and their parts. 3. Homeostasis ● ● Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment. Feedback Mechanisms: ○ Negative Feedback: Mechanisms that counteract changes to maintain stability (e.g., regulation of body temperature). ○ Positive Feedback: Mechanisms that amplify changes (e.g., blood clotting). 4. Organizational Levels ● ● ● ● Cell: The basic unit of life. Tissue: A group of similar cells performing a specific function. Organ: A structure made up of different tissues working together. System: A collection of organs that work together for a common purpose. 5. Metabolism ● ● Anabolism: The building up of molecules (synthesis). Catabolism: The breaking down of molecules (degradation). 6. Requirements for Human Life ● Four Basic Requirements: ○ Temperature (T) ○ Atmospheric Pressure (ATM) ○ Nutrients ○ Oxygen (O2) 7. Anatomical Position ● Anatomical Position: The body is standing upright, facing forward, with arms at the sides and palms facing forward. 8. Directional Terms ● ● ● ● Anterior: Toward the front. Posterior: Toward the back. Superior: Above or higher than. Inferior: Below or lower than. 9. Planes of the Body ● ● ● Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into left and right sections. Transverse Plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior sections. Frontal Plane: Divides the body into anterior and posterior sections. 10. Chemistry Basics ● ● ● ● Atomic Weight/Number: ○ Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom. ○ Atomic Weight: The average weight of an element's isotopes. Isotopes: Variants of an element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Ionic Bonds: Chemical bonds formed by the transfer of electrons between atoms. Covalent Bonds: Bonds formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms. 11. Macromolecules ● ● ● Triglyceride (TAG): A type of lipid made up of glycerol and three fatty acids. Saturated Fatty Acids: Fatty acids with no double bonds between carbon atoms. Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Fatty acids with one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. 12. Cell Membrane ● ● ● Hydrophilic: Water-attracting ("water-loving") regions. Hydrophobic: Water-repelling ("water-fearing") regions. Amphipathic: Molecules that have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. 13. Transport Mechanisms ● Passive Transport: Movement of substances down their concentration gradient without energy use. ● ● ● Active Transport: Movement of substances against their concentration gradient using energy. Endocytosis: The process of taking in materials by engulfing them. Exocytosis: The process of expelling materials from the cell. 14. DNA and RNA ● ● DNA Replication: ○ Helicase: Unwinds the DNA double helix. ○ Polymerase: Synthesizes new strands of DNA. RNA: Plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. ○ Transcription: The process of synthesizing mRNA from DNA. ○ Translation: The process of synthesizing proteins from mRNA. 15. Cell Cycle ● Phases of Mitosis: ○ Prophase: Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes. ○ Metaphase: Chromosomes align in the center of the cell. ○ Anaphase: Chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell. ○ Telophase: The nuclear envelope reforms around each set of chromosomes. 16. Tissue Types ● Four Primary Types of Tissue: ○ Epithelial Tissue: Covers body surfaces and lines cavities. ○ Connective Tissue: Supports and binds other tissues (includes bone, blood, adipose tissue). ○ Muscle Tissue: Responsible for movement (includes skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle). ○ Nervous Tissue: Transmits impulses for communication (includes neurons and neuroglia). 17. Connective Tissue ● ● ● Matrix: The extracellular material that provides structural support. Fibers: Types include collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers. Cell Types: ○ Fibroblasts: Produce fibers and ground substance. ○ Adipocytes: Store fat. ○ Chondrocytes: Cells found in cartilage. 18. Types of Connective Tissue ● ● ● ● Loose Connective Tissue: Includes areolar and adipose tissue. Dense Connective Tissue: Includes regular and irregular types. Supportive Connective Tissue: Includes cartilage (hyaline, fibrocartilage, elastic) and bone (cancellous and compact). Fluid Connective Tissue: Includes blood and lymph. 19. Tissue Injury ● ● ● Necrosis: Uncontrolled cell death due to injury or disease. Apoptosis: Programmed cell death. Vasodilation: The widening of blood vessels, often in response to injury. 20. Wound Healing ● ● Primary Union: Direct healing of a wound with minimal tissue loss. Secondary Union: Healing of a wound with significant tissue loss, involving granulation tissue.