The Learning Sciences and Constructivism 34-82 Questions

34) One recommendation for encouraging participation in cooperative learning groups is to A) not assign any roles in advance and let students decide the group structure. B) assign roles only to one or two students. C) use the assignment of roles in advance. D) grade students based on how well they performed their role. Answer: C Explanation: C) Assigning roles is an effective way for teachers to ensure that students fully participate and cooperate with each other. Roles can be focused on developing students' social skills or complex learning. If focusing on social skills, students can be assigned to roles that support listening, encouragement, and respect for differences. Roles focused on complex learning might include sharing of explanations and insights, probing, and brainstorming. 35) Which of the following is TRUE of reciprocal questioning? A) It is a form of structured controversies. B) It requires special materials and testing procedures for effectiveness. C) Is only appropriate to use among students in Piaget’s concrete operations stage. D) The teacher provides question stems to start. Answer: D Explanation: D) Reciprocal questioning involves students working in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions about lesson material. The teacher provides question stems, but then the students are taught how to develop specific questions about the lesson material using the generic question stems. This approach can be used with students of a wide range of ages and requires no special materials or testing procedures. Reciprocal questioning is a strategy separate and distinct from structured controversies. 36) Jigsaw, an early format for cooperative learning, emphasizes what relationship among group members? A) High dependence B) High interdependence C) Low dependence D) Low interdependence Answer: B Explanation: B) The early format of Jigsaw for cooperative learning groups emphasized a high degree of interdependence among group members. Each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group and become an expert on their piece. Each student then teaches their part to the whole group. 37) In their writing group, Aron has become the expert on how to write an introductory sentence. When students teach other students about the part in which they have expertise, they are engaged in what type of cooperative learning structure? A) Jigsaw B) Group work C) Reciprocal questioning D) Service learning Answer: A Explanation: A) The Jigsaw format is a cooperative learning structure in which each student is responsible for teaching the other group members on one section of the material. Thus, each student becomes an “expert” of his or her assigned or selected content. 38) A small group is assigned to research whether or not capital punishment should be used in Canada. Each pair of the four-person group researches the issue, develops a pro or con position, and presents their position and evidence to the other pair. They reverse positions and argue for the other perspective. The group collaboratively develops a report that summarizes the best arguments for each side and reaches a consensus. This best describes the use of A) a formalized debate. B) guided discovery. C) structured controversy. D) reciprocal questioning. Answer: C Explanation: C) This example best describes in detail the use of a structured controversy cooperative learning design. The foundation of this approach is in constructive conflict resolution. 39) An activity that combines academic learning with personal and social development in the context of meaningful community service is A) virtual volunteering B) service learning C) a community of learners D) an ethic of care Answer: B Explanation: B) Service learning combines academic learning with personal and social development for secondary and post-secondary students. Virtual volunteering is an option in creating service learning opportunities. An ethic of care is fostered through service 40) Mrs. Wade wants to use the computers in her classroom to help her second-grade students improve their math scores on achievement tests. Based on reviews about technology and learning, which of the following plans is most likely to help Mrs. Wade meet her goal? A) Animated characters talking about math with sound effects and music B) Simulation of a classroom activity that involves using math in a fun way C) Tutorial requiring active engagement and frequent interaction with feedback D) Examples of story problems read and worked by an expert Answer: C Explanation: C) Using computer tutorial programs appears to improve achievement test scores for K-12 students, but simulations and enrichment programs had few effects. This seems to be another example that when you teach and test specific skills, children learn the skills. The programs need to support basic processes such as active engagement, frequent interaction with feedback, authenticity and real-world connection 41) The preschool children in Ms. Anderson’s class love to use technology—everything from computers to smartphones and tablets. Parents of several children talk with pride about their child’s techno savvy ways. Based on your knowledge of studies about the use of technology with young children, which parents are boasting about technology use that is NOT good for the child? A) Devan’s parents talk about his skill in learning to turn gadgets on and off and listen to voicemail messages. B) Jazz’s parents talk about the way she can sit for an hour by herself and do the drilland-practice program about numbers. C) Larena’s parents talk about her following simple spoken instructions that lead her through games of rhyming words. D) Paul’s parents talk about his skill in using the iPad’s camera to capture plants and animals that interest him. Answer: B Explanation: B) Computers should not be used to do solitary drill-and-practice activities. Developmentally appropriate ways to use computers with 3- and 4-year-olds are different from the ways we use computers in kindergarten and the primary grades. With developmentally appropriate computer activities, young children can benefit cognitively without sustaining losses in creativity. 42) Which of the following is not a recommended guideline for using computers in the classroom? A) Train student experts to help with computers. B) Never have more than one computer in a classroom. C) Allow only one child on a computer at a time to reduce misbehaviour. D) Always check that software needed for a lesson is working prior to class. Answer: C Explanation: C) Encouraging two children to work together permits social interaction rather than solitary activity. True/False Questions 43) The externally-directed constructivist view emphasizes that learners construct their own knowledge by means of transforming and reorganizing their existing cognitive structures. Answer: FALSE Explanation: The internally-directed constructivist view (based on Piaget) emphasizes that learners construct their own knowledge by means of transforming and reorganizing their existing cognitive structures. 44) Although there are many cognitive apprenticeship models, they all share the feature of conceptual scaffolding that is gradually reduced as students become more competent and proficient. Answer: TRUE Explanation: Most cognitive apprenticeship models share six features. Students model the performance of an expert, receive external support through coaching, receive conceptual scaffolding, continually articulate their knowledge, reflect on their progress, and explore new ways to apply their learning. 45) Cognitive apprenticeships are appropriate for nearly all subject areas, but they are not appropriate for learning mathematics. Answer: FALSE Explanation: Cognitive apprenticeships can focus on any cognitive objective including mathematics, writing, and reading comprehension. There are many models for cognitive apprenticeships in which a less experienced learner acquires knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert. 46) Group work and cooperative learning are simply different terms used for the same instructional approach. Answer: FALSE Explanation: There are some areas of overlap between group work, collaboration and cooperative learning. Group work describes several students working together –but they may or may not be cooperating. Cooperation implies a way of working with others to achieve a shared goal. 47) According to McCaslin and Good (1996), the advantages of group learning are so superior to individual learning approaches teachers do not need to question the possible disadvantages of group learning. Answer: FALSE Explanation: McCaslin and Good suggest the disadvantages of group learning. These include reinforcing misconceptions, valuing process over learning, valuing socializing over learning, shifting dependency from teacher to the “expert” in the group, and reinforcing status differences. 48) One of the potential disadvantages of group learning is that status differences among students may be increased rather than decreased. Answer: TRUE Explanation: One of the disadvantages of group learning identified by McCaslin and Good is that status differences may be increased rather than decreased. 49) Cooperative learning should be limited to learning situations that involve highly structured tasks. Answer: FALSE Explanation: Tasks for cooperative learning groups may be more or less structured. Highly structured tasks are useful for work that has specific answers such as drill and practice, applying routines and procedures, and mathematical computations. Ill-structured tasks involve complex situations with multiple answers and require the resources of an entire group. Ill-structured tasks necessitate problem finding and higher-order thinking and require higher-quality interactions than routine tasks in creating learning situations. 50) One of the reasons Mr. Brakefield assigns students to cooperative learning groups is so that he can rotate leadership roles and opportunities amongst his students. Mr. Brakefield's rationale for assigning groups is a valid one. Answer: TRUE Explanation: If the goal for the group learning activity is to enhance social skills, to facilitate intergroup understanding, or the appreciation of diversity, rotating leadership roles can be helpful. Rotating leadership roles results in all students having an opportunity to develop leadership skills. 51) In cooperative learning groups, the primary role of the materials monitor is to select the material to be studied. Answer: FALSE Explanation: The materials monitor picks up and returns materials. 52) Teachers who want to encourage dialogue in reciprocal questioning should not begin sentences with the word "why." Answer: FALSE Explanation: Question stems such as “Why is…important?” are effective in reciprocal questioning. 53) In the Jigsaw method, one student leader is responsible for teaching all of the material to the group. Answer: FALSE Explanation: The jigsaw method involves each group member being responsible for teaching part of the material to the group after becoming “experts” on their part. 54) Service learning refers to problem-based learning projects which are outside of the student's curriculum. Answer: FALSE Explanation: Service learning combines academic learning with personal and social development. Service learning is most effective when the activities are integrated into the students’ curriculum and enable them opportunities to apply newly learned academic skills and knowledge. 55) Mr. Schwab's class engaged in a week-long project to collect food for homeless shelters. This activity is an example of service learning. Answer: TRUE Explanation: This is an example of service learning. Participation in service learning can promote political and moral development for adolescents. 56) Computers can increase student achievement when they are used to support basic processes that lead to learning. Answer: TRUE Explanation: Computers are more likely to increase achievement if they support the basic processes that lead to learning: active engagement, frequent interaction with feedback, authenticity and real-world connection, and productive group work. 57) An Immersive Virtual Learning Environment simulates a real-world environment that immerses students in tasks similar to those required in a professional practicum. Answer: TRUE Explanation: An immersive virtual learning environment is a simulation of a real-world environment that immerses students in tasks like those required in a professional practicum. 58) Online interactive gaming environments in virtual worlds are harmful for children’s cognitive development and should be avoided. Answer: FALSE Explanation: Already in use for several years in the medical field, interactive gaming environments have been gaining attention for younger children as well. The pedagogic value is in the ability to develop lessons using modelling and problem-based learning scenarios as an alternative method of instruction. Completion Questions 59) The theory that states that the way we think develops from real-time, goal-directed interaction between humans and their environment is known as ____________. Answer: embodied cognition 60) The conception of learning based on the view that students actively create their own knowledge through their interactions with tasks and resources is the ________ perspective. Answer: constructivist 61) Martha strongly believes that the world was in fact flat prior to Christopher Columbus's journal of the world. Martha's teacher does not correct Martha's construction of this knowledge because she wants to validate Martha's current understanding of the world. In this example, the teacher is most aligned with ________ constructivist teaching perspectives. Answer: radical Explanation: Radical constructivists believe that knowledge is assumed to the student's individual construction and therefore cannot be judged or proven to be right or wrong. 62) Constructivists that place great emphasis on the social and cultural sources of knowing are in the group of theorists referred to as ________________. Answer: second wave constructivists 63) Vygotsky's notion that learning is inherently social and embedded within a particular cultural setting is consistent with ________. Answer: situated learning 64) When pre-service teachers engage in student teaching, they are learning with the support and guidance of an expert teacher. This method is based on the idea that knowledge and skills are best learned in the context in which they will be later used in the real-world setting. This model of teacher preparation emphasizes ________ learning. Answer: situated Explanation: Situated learning emphasizes learning in which the knowledge and skills are tied to the situation in which they were learned. Situated learning is a constructivist notion that recognizes it is difficult to transfer learning to new settings. 65) Social constructivist theorists view learning as occurring within a specific ________, a social situation or context in which ideas are judged useful or true. Answer: community of practice 66) In relation to social negotiation, a commitment to build shared meaning by finding a common ground and exchanging interpretations is called a(n) ________ attitude. Answer: intersubjective 67) Bruner's notion of teaching, in which more complex forms of learning build upon fundamental concepts taught early in the school years, is called the ________ curriculum. Answer: spiral 68) The method that confronts students are with realistic problems that do not necessarily have a “right” answer, is known as ________ learning. Answer: problem-based Explanation: In true problem-based learning, the problem is real and the students’ actions matter. The problems don’t necessarily have correct answers and result in a knowledge that is useful and flexible rather than inert. 69) The basic condition of ________ learning is all students working together toward the achievement of a shared goal or task. Answer: cooperative 70) The quiet captain in a cooperative learning group is responsible for maintaining the ________. Answer: noise level 71) William is charged with making sure introverted students participate in his cooperative learning group. William was assigned the role of the ________. Answer: encourager 72) The role of the ________ in a cooperative learning group is to explain concepts when needed. Answer: coach 73) When the teacher provides students with question stems and then asks students to answer the questions in pairs, he/she is involving the students in ________. Answer: reciprocal questioning 74) The ________ format requires each member of a cooperative learning group to teach their other members one section of the material. Answer: Jigsaw 75) One of the goals of service learning is to encourage students to reflect upon their own role in ________. Answer: society 76) A program that simulates real-world environments and immerses students in tasks that are characteristic of a professional practicum is called _____________. Answer: an immersive virtual learning environment Short Answer Questions 77) Even though many psychologists and educators use the term constructivism, they often mean very different things. Although there is no single constructivist theory, most constructivist perspectives do agree on two central ideas. First, identify these two central ideas. Then describe at least two practices in traditional classrooms that seem inconsistent with these ideas. Answer: The central ideas of constructivism are 1) learners are active in constructing their own understanding – they create knowledge by going beyond the information they are given and 2) social interactions are important in this knowledge construction process. Traditional classrooms often implement practices that involve memorizing facts and developing superficial learning. Much of the learning comes from one source, a textbook, rather than a variety of rich resources. These practices do not help students actively engage in constructing their own understanding or using information, resources, and even help from others to build understanding. Teachers often present material in lecture format. Students often lack engaging opportunities to interact. Many learning activities are designed to help students succeed on achievement tests, and students may not find relevant connections between their classroom learning and the purpose for gaining the knowledge and skills. Students might progress through traditional classrooms without increasing their abilities to participate with others in activities that are meaningful in the culture. 78) Many constructivist approaches to learning recommend five conditions for learning. In light of these five conditions, contrast traditional classroom teaching with teaching based on these constructivist conditions. Answer: Complex, realistic, and relevant learning environments: In a traditional teaching environment, students sit in desks, listen to content being presented, and read from texts to learn information. Students often find material irrelevant. Tasks are typically contrived rather than mimicking the real world. Social negotiation and shared responsibility as part of learning: Students are often passive receivers rather than active participants with responsibility for learning. Students typically count on the teacher to take responsibility for teaching them rather taking responsibility for their own learning. The learning is geared toward individual tasks rather than socially negotiated. Multiple perspectives, multiple representations of content: Often material is presented in one way from one point of view. Students may not feel free to express dissenting opinions or diverse perspectives. On assessments, students are expected to respond with the perspective that was presented in the lesson via text and/or teacher. Self-awareness, understanding that knowledge is constructed: Students typically don’t share their own beliefs and ideas as much as they listen to ideas that are constructed for them and presented to them. It’s more a matter of memorizing content than a matter of constructing knowledge. Students may not be aware of the influences that shape their thinking. Ownership in learning: Students are often dependent rather than independent about learning. They may wait for a teacher to tell them what to do and what to think rather than generating ideas. They are more comfortable listening to a teacher give them knowledge and information than with digging to find their own answers and solve their own problems. 79) Describe the major elements of inquiry learning. Describe how you could implement these ideas in planning a lesson in your subject area. How could you know that your efforts were successful? Answer: The many adaptations of the basic learning inquiry format usually include the following major elements after the teacher formulates a puzzling question, event, or problem. Students (1) formulate hypotheses to explain the event, answer the question, or solve the problem, (2) collect data to test the hypotheses, (3) draw conclusions, and (4) reflect on the original question or problem and the thinking processes needed to solve it. In creating their own plans, students should demonstrate clearly how they would implement each of these phases in responding to whatever problem or question that the students would devise for their hypothetical future students. 80) What are some of the disadvantages of group learning and cooperative learning? Answer: According to McCaslin and Good, some of the disadvantages of group learning can include: 1. Students may come to value speed over good learning. 2. Students may reinforce each other's misconceptions. 3. Off-task socializing may get in the way of learning. 4. Students may become dependent on one student in the group whom they have determined is the "expert." 5. Group learning may reinforce or increase status differences between students. In addition, a potential disadvantage of cooperative learning is that is can be time intensive. Compared to a direct instruction approach, cooperative learning can take more time. A final concern is that some parents (and other educators) may view it as simply play time and discredit the value of cooperative learning as a strategy for meeting learning objectives 81) You plan to implement a Grade 8 mathematics unit on the personal costs of cell phone use. You have decided to teach this curricular unit using cooperative learning. How will you arrange your cooperative learning groups and what factors will you consider in regard to group assignments and membership? Answer: First, you know it is best for you to set up groups to encourage interaction and participation. The group size is dependent on your learning goals. With this project, your learning goals are to engage students in reviewing, rehearsing, and practicing mathematical concepts you have previously covered. Therefore, you determine the ideal group size based on your learning goals is 4 to 6 students. Third, in assigning students to groups you ensure you have gender balance. To ensure that the assignment is a true cooperative learning group, you should keep in mind the five elements that define true cooperative learning groups: positive interdependence, promotive interaction, individual accountability, collaborative and social skills, and group processing. 82) What are some of the challenges and dilemmas related to teaching from a constructivist perspective? Answer: Mark Windschitl (2002) identifies four dilemmas of constructivism in practice. He suggests that there are conceptual dilemmas as teachers attempt to reconcile current beliefs about pedagogy with the beliefs supporting a constructivist learning environment. Pedagogical dilemmas might include finding the balance between one's desire to make sure students are thinking creatively and constructing their own knowledge, yet still have an accurate understanding of the information to be learned. Cultural dilemmas will also add to the complexities of teacher's abilities to engage in constructivist practices. Finally, according to Windschitl, there are political dilemmas that include problems such as balancing one’s attempt to teach for deep understanding and critical thinking with the realities and requirements related to provincial achievement testing or the accountability standards of parents.