Exam 1 Review Endocrine and Cardiovascular

Exam 1 Study Guide (Endocrine and Cardio) Endocrine System: Function maintain homeostasis throughout the body; collection of glands and organs that produce and regulate hormones in the bloodstream to control many functions of the body. Hormone regulatory chemical; to stimulate Neurohormone hormone secreted by neuron into the blood rather than the synaptic cleft Paracrine Regulation regulatory molecules work without being transmitted by the blood Endocrine Glands and Hormones -Polypeptides: short chains of amino acids (insulin and ADH) -Glycoproteins: longer than amino acids with carbs (FSH and LH) -Amines: amino acids (Epinephrine and Norepinephrine and Melatonin) -Steroids: lipids derived from cholesterol (sex steroids and corticosteroids (from adrenal cortex)) Lipophilic hormones that enter cell (ex. steroid hormones) Lipophobic hormones that do not enter the cell (ex. Epinephrine) 1. Epinephrine is lipophobic and needs to bind to specific receptor proteins on cell surface. 2. Acting through intermediary G proteins the hormone bound receptor activates the enzyme adenenylyl cyclase which converts ATP to cAMP 3. Cyclic AMP performs as a 2ndary messenger and activates protein kinase-A an enzyme that was previously inactive 4. Protein kinase–A phosphorylates and activates the enzyme phosphorylase which catalyses the hydrolysis of glycogen into glucose. Pituiatry -Posterior Pituitary Gland: stores and releases  Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): allows for fluid to stay in the body  Oxytocin: stimulates utrine contraction -Anterior Pituiatry Gland: produces the hormones it secretes  Growth Hormone (GH): stimulates muscles and bones to grow  Adrenocorticosteroid hormone (ACTH): regulates glucose homeostasis  Thyroid Stumilating Hormone (TSH): stimulates the production of thyroxin by the thyroid gland  Luteinizing Hormone (LH): ovulation and testosterone production in testes  Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): develops ovarian follicle and sperm in males  Prolactin (PRL): stimulates mammary glands to produce milk  Melanocyte stimulating Hormone (MSH): synthesis and dispersion of melanin pigment Thyroid Gland thyroxine helps set basal metabolic rate by stimulating the rate of cell respiration Parathyroid four small glands attached to the back of the thyroid -Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): regulate blood calcium levels Adrenal Gland located above each kidney -Adrenal Medulla: inner portion (cuboidal);  Epinephrine (EP) and Norepinephrine (NEP) -Adrenal Cortex: referred to as corticosteroids  Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone): increase renal reabsorption of sodium and water; raises BP  Glucocorticooids (cortisol): affects rate of glucose metabolism  Andogens: precursor of male and female sex hormones 2 Pancreas islets of Langerhans (1-2% pancreas mass) -Beta (B) secrete insulin: lower blood glucose -Alpha (a) secrete glucagon: raises blood glucose Ovaries and Testes produce androgen Pineal Gland secretes melatonin which regulates biological clocks Cardiovascular System: Function to transport materials to and from cells: oxygen and carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, immune system components, waste products. Functions of Blood  Stabilization of body temp Heat loss via skin if hot Heat retention to brain and other vital organs via shunting  Defense against toxins and pathogens WBC- transported by blood to fight infection and remove debris  Restiction of fluid losses at injury sites clotting  Regulation of pH, ions, and acids Ions- either add or subtract by diffusion with interstitial fluid and blood Absorbs and neutralize acid ( lactic acid from skeletal muscles)  Transport Gases (O2 from lungs to tissues and CO2 from tissue to lungs) Nutrients from digestive tract, storage, or liver Hormones such as from endocrine glands to target cells Waste products from cells to kidnes and CO2 to lungs Formed Elements all cells and solids  Red Blood Cells (RBC) or ERTHROCYTES: transport oxygen  White Blood Cells (WBC) or LEUKOCYTES: part of immune system  Platelets: cell fragments involved in clotting Hemopoiesis process of producing formed elements Plasma makes up 50-60% of blood volume; more than 90% of plasma is water Plasma Proteins  Albumins (60%): regulate osmotic pressure in plasma; transport fatty acids, thyroid hormones, steroid hormones  Globulins (35%): antibodies also called immunoglobulins; transport globulins  Fibrinogen (4%): making of fibers; molecules form clots; can become serum (plasma taken out) Serum fibrinogen removed RBC structure small and highly specialized disc, thin in middle and thicker at edge ( 7-8 um); from progenitor cells Hemoglobin (Hb) protein molecule, transports respiratory gases. Responsible for cells ability to transport O2 and CO2. Complex quaternary structure 3  4 Globular protein subunits: each with 1 molecule of heme; each heme contains 1 iron ion  Iron ions associate with oxygen (oxyhemoglobin) or dissociate from oxygen (deoxyhemoglobin) Anemia Hb or hematocrit levels are below normal RBC made in bone marrow; lose 10% to hemolysis; 90% sent through body; after 120 days, macrophage breaks apart RBC, heme releases the iron that goes back into blood. Transferrin takes iron back to form RBC. (PURPLE is decaying cells) 4 Heme Biliverdin Bilirubin (yellow); Bilirubin goes into liver which either goes to kidney and out through urine or excreted through bile. (GREEN) Erythropoiesis RBC formation; only in red bone marrow (myeloid tissue); stem cells mature to become RBC Hemocytoblasts stem cells in bone marrow divide to produce:  Myeloid Stem Cells RBC or WBC  Lymphoid Stem Cells lymphocytes Agglutination agglutinogens: antigens on surface of RBCs; screened by immune system; plasma antibodies attack (agglutinate) foreign antigens Blood Types A (surface antigen A) (type B antibodies) B (surface antigen b) (type A antibodies) AB (antigens A and B) (neither A nor B) O (neither A nor B) (both A and B antibodies) Rh Factor either Rh (+) or Rh (-) WBC LEUKOCYTES; has nuclei, not carrying O2 or CO2  Defend against pathogens  Remove toxins and wastes  Attack abnormal cells  Movement: In CT proper and lymphatic system organs Circulating WBC:  Migrate out of bloodstream  Have gliding movement  Attracted to chemical stimuli (postive Chemotaxis)  Some are Phagocytic ( neutrophil, eosinophils (microphages), and monocytes (macrophage)) Types of WBCs  5 Neurophil polymorphonuclear leukocytes; 50-70% of WBC; very fast and first to attack bacteria, fungi, and some viruses. Engulf and digest pathogens. Release prostaglandins and leukotrienes (calls other cells)   Eosinophil acidophils; 2-4% of WBC; sensitive to allergens; control inflammation Basophil less than 1% of WBC; release chemicals that attract basophils and eosinphils. Histamine (dilates blood vessles) and Heparin (prevents blood clotting). Both enhance inflammation.  Monocytes 2-8% of WBC; become aggressive macrophages; engulf large particles and pathogens; attract immune system cells  Lymphocytes 20-30% of WBC; part of the body’s specific defense system T cells attack cell directly B cells humoral immunity; never do direct attack Natural Killer cells (NK) immune survelliance Leukopenia very low WBC count Leukocytosis very high WBC count Leukemia very very high WBC count Myeloid Stem Cells produce all WBCs except from lymphocytes Platelets cell fragments involved in clotting  Release important clotting chemicals  Temporarily patch damaged vessel walls  Actively contract tissue after clot formation  Thrombocytopoiesis: platelet production 6 Hemostasis bleeding 3 steps in Vascular Phase 1. Endothelial cells contract 2. Endothelial cells release: chemical factors, endothelins 3. Endothelial cell membranes become “sticky” to seal off blood flow Platelet Phase platelet attachment stick to surface and forms platelet plug which closes small breaks.  Activated Platelets Release Clotting Compound  Endothelial cells release prostacyclin that stop platelet aggregation  Circulating enzymes break down adenosine diphosphate (ADP)  Development of blood clot isolates the area Coagulation Phase converts fibrinogen into fibrin and fibrin network allows for clotting. Fibrinolysis thrombin and tissue plasminogen activator activate plasminogen.  Plasminogen produces plasmin: digets fibrin strands 7