Psychology Answer Key (A Cross-sectional Research Study of Development Examines)

1. A cross-sectional research study of development examines what? *A. People of different ages, at the same time B. People of different cultures, at the same time C. One group of people, repeatedly as they grow older D. Many types of behavior, for one group at one time Answer: A. A cross-sectional study studies people of different ages at the same time. A longitudinal study, however, would study the same people over time. 2. What evidence has been used to show that a newborn prefers the sound of his/her mother’s voice? *A. A newborn sucks harder if sucking turns on the sound of the mother’s voice. B. A newborn turns its head toward the mother’s voice, but not toward other voices. C. Hearing the mother’s voice elicits a smile, but other voices do not. D. Hearing the mother’s voice helps the infant go to sleep. Answer: A. Newborns suck more vigorously to turn on a recording of their own mother’s voice than another woman’s voice, indicating that they recognize the sound of the mother’s voice. 3. What did Piaget mean by accommodation? A. Conforming to the opinions of people you respect B. Understanding that objects keep their volume after changing shape *C. Modifying a schema to fit a new object D. Combining classical conditioning and operant conditioning Answer: C. Piaget’s accommodation means to modify a schema to fit a new object or problem. For example, if a schema is that only living things move on their own and a child sees the sun and moon “move”, he/she modifies this schema with these exceptions. 4. Which of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development is characteristic of infants? A. The formal operations stage B. The preoperational stage C. The concrete operations stage *D. The sensorimotor stage Answer: D. Piaget’s sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to about 2 years. This stage is when a child’s behavior is mostly simple motor responses to sensory stimuli. 5. If researchers find that your preference for a specific color can actually be predicted by your genetic code, they would be saying this preference was coming from A. both nature and nurture. B. neither nature nor nurture. *C. nature. D. nurture. Answer: C. Nature is the term used to describe traits or behaviors that are hereditary, or due to genetic code, while nurture is the term used to describe traits or behaviors that are due to the effects of the environment. 6. The human genome is A. our collection of phenotypes that make us who we are. *B. the complete set of genes found in a human. C. the environmental factors that play a role in development. D. our learning experiences that can actually alter our genetics as we develop. Answer: B. The human genome is the complete set of genes found in the chromosomes of humans. 7. Traditional siblings _________________ genetic information overlap in comparison to dizygotic twins. *A. possess roughly the same amount of B. possess about 25% more C. have about 25% less D. have about 50% less Answer: A. Dizygotic twins are twins that come from two separate eggs, sharing half of their genes, while monozygotic twins are twins that come from the same egg and therefore half identical genes. Dizygotic twins have the about the same genetic overlap as traditional siblings since they come from separate eggs. 8. To determine the impact of shared environments, non-shared environments, and genetics on a characteristic, developmental psychologists use formulas that require information about overlaps of ___________________ on that characteristic. A. identical twins and adopted siblings *B. monozygotic and dizygotic twins C. parents and children D. siblings and friends Answer: B. Developmental psychologists are interested in the overlap between monozygotic and dizygotic twins on characteristics of interest. This is because "if dizygotic twins resemble each other almost as much as monozygotic twins do in some trait, then the heritability of that trait is low because genetic similarity did not have much influence. If monozygotic twins resemble each other more strongly than dizygotic twins do, then the heritability is probably high." 9. Research on heritability has consistently shown that _________________ are often the biggest contributor to personality and interest differences that we see between people. A. shared environments *B. non-shared environments C. genetics D. illnesses Answer: B. Studies have shown (i.e. Loehlin, 1992) that non-shared environments account for the largest amount of variance in personality, followed by genetics, and then the shared environment. 10. Which of the following is NOT considered a potential confound with research that examines the topic of birth order effects? A. the age of the parents B. the size of the family C. the socioeconomic status of the family *D. the region that the family lives in Answer: D. Age of the parents, size of the family, and socioeconomic status of the family can all produce effects similar to birth order effects. The region that the family lives in is not likely to be a potential confound. 11. In a meta-analysis of studies that have looked at birth order effects and the “Big 5”, we find more _____ than other types of results when comparing the first to the later siblings. A. positive B. negative *C. null D. curvilinear Answer: C. Though many students have shown that there are differences in first and later siblings for several Big 5 traits, Sulloway’s (1996) meta-analysis found that 56% of studies had null effects. 12. Regardless of the cause of this effect, which of the following individuals would you predict to be more likely to have a higher IQ than the others on this list based solely on birth order research? *A. a first born in a small family B. a first born in a large family C. a last born in a small family D. a last born in a large family Answer: A. Research has shown that first borns tend to have higher IQs and that average IQ also declines with family size, so the first born in a small family is likely to have the highest IQ. 13. John Locke’s theory that we are born as a “tabula rasa” suggested that we are born _______ innate skills and dispositions. This theory has been proven _________ through a large collection of research on the topic. A. with; true B. without; true *C. without; false D. with; false Answer: C. Tabula rasa translates to “blank slate,” thus John Locke believed that everyone is born without innate skills or dispositions. Research has shown that a child comes into the world with a predisposition to understanding basic physical and biological principles. 14. If someone sees whether a child removes a cover to retrieve a toy, what is the investigator testing? *A. Object permanence B. Conservation of volume C. Conservation of number D. Theory of mind Answer: A. Object permanence is the idea that objects continue to exist even when we do not see or hear them. 15. According to Vygotsky, what is “the zone of proximal development”? A. The difference between what the child can do and what the child hopes to do. B. The difference between the words a child uses and the words the child understands. C. The difference between what a child knows and what the parents know. *D. The difference between what a child does alone and what the child does with help. Answer: D. The zone of proximal development is the distance between actual development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers. 16. In the “Strange Situation” that Mary Ainsworth devised, psychologists evaluate a child’s reactions to which of the following? A. Apparent violations of the laws of physics *B. The presence or absence of the mother and a stranger C. Video games that provide rewards on an unpredictable schedule D. Sounds that seem to come from people who are not moving their lips Answer: B. The Strange Situation is a procedure to measure attachment styles in which a mother and her infant (typically 12 to 18 months old) come into a room with many toys. Then a stranger enters the room. The mother leaves and then returns. A few minutes later, both the stranger and the mother leave. Then the stranger returns, and finally, the mother returns. Through a one-way mirror, a psychologist observes the infant’s reactions to each coming and going. 17. According to research mentioned in the textbook, how is a child born a female affected if exposed to above-average levels of testosterone before birth? *A. She is more likely than average to like the toys that boys usually like. B. She is more likely than average to be shy around strangers. C. She is more likely than average to be good at recognizing emotional expressions. D. She is more likely than average to have a strong sex drive. Answer: A. A child, born as a female, that was exposed to above-average levels of testosterone before birth is more likely, at a young age, to like toys that boys typically like. 18. In research, “gender” is a term used to identify a person’s A. sexual orientation. *B. sex that they identify themselves as. C. biological sex. D. behavioral tendencies that relate to a specific sex. Answer: B. Gender is a term typically used to describe the sex a person identifies themselves as, while sex is often used to describe their biological sex. 19. On a submarine with constant artificial light and no sunlight, what happens to a sleep–wake cycle? A. Depending on the brightness of the light, people are always wakeful or always sleepy. B. People become alert when they have something to do, but otherwise sleepy. *C. People continue to alternate between wakeful and sleepy on a 24-hour basis. D. People feel wakeful and sleepy on an irregular and unpredictable basis. Answer: C. Our circadian rhythms are biological rhythms of activity that last about a day. While the sun provides cues for this rhythm, it is innate, so a submarine with constant artificial light is not likely to heavily change this cycle. 20. Which device can indicate whether someone is in stage 1, 2, 3, or 4 of sleep? A. MRI B. IAT C. PET *D. EEG Answer: D. An EEG, or electroencephalograph, measures and amplifies tiny electrical charges on the scalp that reflect patterns of brain activity, and therefore can be used to measure sleep stages. 21. Is it possible to hypnotize someone who does not wish to cooperate? A. Yes, if the hypnotist has a highly dominant personality. B. Yes, if the participant being hypnotized is mentally defective. C. Yes, if the hypnotist knows which phrases to repeat. *D. No. Answer: D. Hypnosis is a condition of increased suggestibility that occurs in the context of a special hypnotist-subject relationship. The first step is agreeing to give it a try because hypnosis cannot occur if a person does not wish to cooperate. 22. What are two other terms used to describe various “unconscious” acts of the mind? *A. implicit and automatic B. explicit and implicit C. controlled and automatic D. explicit and controlled Answer: B. Implicit (vs. explicit) and automatic (vs. controlled) are two ways of describing the unconscious, fast-acting acts of the mind. 23. The thematic apperception test (TAT) is a test where people are asked to describe the events leading up to, the events occurring during, and the likely outcome of the situation depicted in ambiguous photographs. It attempts to measure implicit ___________ of individual. *A. motivation B. memories C. learning D. attention Answer: A. In a TAT, a person is asked to make up a story for each picture they are shown, describing the events leading up to the scene, what is happening in it, and what will happen in the future. It is used to measure people’s needs and motivations. 24. What is defined as “a maladaptive, inflexible way of dealing with the environment and other people”? A. Reaction formation B. Tardive dyskinesia C. Delusion of grandeur *D. Personality disorder Answer: D. This is the exact definition of a personality disorder, which includes different types such as antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, or schizotypal personality disorder. 25. When attempting to define clinical disorders through the use of proper sets, we have often found this approach A. to work only with biological based disorders. *B. impossible to use successfully. C. be highly dependent on the patient. D. work very well for everyone. Answer: B. Proper sets are sets of symptoms or defining features or a syndrome that are both necessary and sufficient to define an illness, and were used early in psychopathology. Most patients do not exhibit perfectly textbook cases of illnesses, so these did not work successfully. 26. As new versions of the DSM have been published over the past few decades, we have consistently found _________ in the number of disorders listed in each subsequent versions of the manual. A. no change *B. a steady rise C. a steady decline D. a very inconsistent pattern of change Answer: B. The DSM, or the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders) sets criteria for diagnosing psychological disorders. With each new version, there has been an increase in number of disorders in the manual. 27. Why has psychotherapy moved toward more diagnoses, more research, and briefer treatments? A. Laws passed by the U.S. government *B. Pressure from health insurance companies C. Increases in the number of undergraduates studying psychology D. Pressure from a labor union that represents psychiatrists Answer: B. Today, health insurance companies will only pay for a certain amount of treatments and typically those that are empirically demonstrated to be helpful. In addition, insurance companies might not pay for an extended amount of psychotherapy appointments without a diagnosis, so they have also become more common. 28. Brad recently lost control of his right arm, though the doctors can see no reason why this is occurring. He also has discovered that he cannot recall a large portion of the last week, with again no reason for this occurrence. Both symptoms that Brad is displaying would be linked to the category of ___________ based on the descriptions given above. *A. dissociative disorders B. somatoform disorders C. personality disorders D. “problems in living” Answer: A. Brad’s symptoms fit into the diagnosis of a dissociative disorder (which includes conversion disorders), in which there is a disruption of conscious awareness and control. Losing control of his right arm would likely be categorized as functional paralysis, and losing parts of his memory might be considered amnesia or a fugue state. 29. Developmental disorders are defined as such because A. they come on gradually. *B. they are present since birth. C. they result from childhood experiences. D. their source is unknown. Answer: A. Developmental disorders are disorders that are present at birth. 30. Which therapy concentrates on understanding people’s conflicting, unconscious impulses? A. Behavior therapy *B. Psychodynamic therapy C. Pharmacotherapy D. Person-centered therapy Answer: B. Psychodynamic therapies attempt to understand conflicting impulses, including some that the individual does not consciously recognize. Psychodynamic therapies include those based on Freud’s and Alder’s procedures. 31. What does behavior therapy emphasize more than many other types of therapy do? *A. Setting specific goals B. Unconditional positive regard C. Probing the unconscious mind D. Treating a client in the context of the whole family Answer: A. Behavioral therapists assume that behavior is learned and can be unlearned. Therefore, behavior therapy begins with a clear, well-defined goal, then attempts to achieve it through learning. 32. Which therapy concentrates on listening with unconditional positive regard? A. Behavior therapy B. Cognitive therapy C. Psychodynamic therapy *D. Humanistic therapy Answer: D. Humanistic, or person-centered therapy is therapy in which the therapist listens to the client with total acceptance and unconditional positive regard. 33. What is the result from studies comparing various forms of psychotherapy? A. Person-centered therapy is the most effective form of treatment for improving quality of life. B. Behavior therapy is the least effective form of treatment. C. Psychoanalysis is the most effective form of treatment for major mental disorders. *D. Many types of therapy produce benefits, but social cognitive therapy seems to have better overall results. Answer: D. Several studies have shown that many types of therapy produce positive benefits, but that cognitive behavioral therapy has been shown to be the most beneficial. 34. What often results when pharmacological and psychotherapy treatment methods are combined when helping people with various disorders? A. they actually cancel each other out B. they work just about as well as the one that works the best on its own *C. they work much better in conjunction with each other in comparison to alone D. the benefits of these pairings range very widely from disorder to disorder, with most showing only a small benefit Answer: C. Combining pharmacological treatment and psychotherapy has been shown to be the most effective method of treatment. Many believe this is because while drugs can offer rapid relief, psychotherapy also teaches long-lasting coping skills. 35. What is deinstitutionalization? A. Decreasing anxiety by distraction *B. Removal of patients from mental hospitals C. Practicing psychotherapy without a license D. A complete mental breakdown Answer: B. Deinstitutionalization is the removal of patients from mental hospitals. In the 1950s, this occurred on a massive scale to get people the least restrictive care. 36. What has been a trend in the treatment of mental patients, since the 1950s? A. Therapists rely more heavily on Freud’s theories and methods. *B. Fewer patients spend much time in mental hospitals. C. More psychiatrists talk with their patients instead of prescribing drugs. D. More people have been ruled to be legally insane. Answer: B. As stated above, in the 1950s, hospitals moved toward deinstitutionalization, such that people could receive the least restrictive care. In 1967, the U.S. had 200,000 people in mental hospitals, a number that has decreased to fewer than 40,000 in 2007. 37. In 1973 Rosenhan ran a “pseudopatient” study. In this study, he had several of his assistants commit themselves to mental institutions by reporting a collection of symptoms, and then once admitted, begin acting like they normally did before the institutionalization. Why did he do this? A. To show the depravity of these institutions in the 1970’s B. To verify that hospitals were abiding by APA standards *C. To see if the doctors at these hospitals could identify their lack of symptoms and release them as healthy D. To see what symptoms most of the patients in these hospitals were consistently displaying Answer: C. The Rosenhan study looked at whether doctors would notice and alter their treatment in response to changed symptoms in the hospital. Most did not, and instead interpreted the normal behavior through the lens of a schizophrenia diagnosis. 38. In class, it was mentioned that one of the more surprising long-term effects of a diagnosis of a clinical disorder is the *A. stigma that comes along with that diagnosis. B. distrust of clinicians that forms through tough assessments. C. health impacts that psychopharmacological drugs have on the individual. D. feelings of failure that arise in most people that are diagnosed. Answer: A. The stigma of mental illness is one of the more long-term effects of a diagnosis, due to the fact that many overemphasize a diagnosis, label behavior as sick, and discredit the individuals, even when in remission. 39. Early mental hospitals in the 1700’s were often generated as a means of A. curing those with minor ailments. *B. separating people that were diagnosed with these from the population. C. exploring how spirituality and mental illness were linked. D. celebrating the unique qualities that those who displayed mental illnesses possessed. Answer: B. Many mental hospitals were originally created to separate those diagnosed with mental illnesses from the general population. 40. In the experimental psychopathology lecture, it was mentioned that studies have looked at the subtle movements of the eye across different disorder groups and controls. In these studies, it was discovered that ___________ show the most erratic eye movement patterns when following a moving object. *A. people diagnosed with schizophrenia B. control subjects C. people diagnosed with mood disorders D. people diagnosed with anxiety disorders Answer: A. Holzman et al. (1981) found that while individuals without mental illness have smooth pursuit eye movements, those with schizophrenia have more jagged eye movements. 41. Experimental psychopathology have linked depression symptoms to the symptoms of others species when put in specific experimental conditions. In both cases, the subjects in these experiments and individuals diagnosed with depression were found much more prominent thoughts of *A. helplessness. B. anger. C. emotional dysregulation. D. frustration. Answer: A. A correlation has been found in individuals who express feelings of helplessness and also having feelings of depression. 42. Research on schizophrenia has shown that the source of the disorder can often be traced back to A. genetics alone. B. environmental factors. *C. a combination of genetic and environmental factors. D. nothing… The cause of the disorder is still a complete mystery. Answer: C. The diathesis-stress model is a model that has been used to explain the onset of schizophrenia. The diathesis is the genetic component, and schizophrenia has been shown to highly heritable. However, it’s not completely heritable in that in monozygotic twins, both twins do not always experience symptoms. The stress is an environmental component that challenges the person’s adaptation to the diathesis, or the genetic likelihood, which is believed to ultimately trigger symptoms. 43. Rita has started developing symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder. Which of the following factors that have played a role in the development of these symptoms would be identified as a part of the diathesis portion of her development. *A. her biological predisposition for the disorder. B. her early childhood experiences. C. recent traumas that she has experienced. D. the thoughts that she keeps generating on her own. Answer: A. Again, the diathesis, as part of the diathesis-stress model, is the genetic or biological component that renders a person at higher risk of some form of psychopathology. 44. Which anxiety disorder is characterized by unprovoked periods of rapid breathing, rapid heart rate, chest pains, sweating, faintness, and trembling? A. Cotard’s syndrome *B. Panic disorder C. Obsessive-compulsive disorder D. Narcissistic personality disorder Answer: C. People with panic disorder have frequent periods of anxiety and occasional attacks of panic, which include rapid breathing, increased heart rate, chest pains, sweating, faintness, and trembling. 45. In John B. Watson’s attempt to condition a phobia in a child, what was the conditioned response? A. A rat B. A loud noise *C. Crying and other fear reactions D. Salivation Answer: C. Watson’s attempt to condition a phobia in a child led him to engage in a protocol in which a little boy was forced to hear loud noises whenever he came into proximity with a harmless white rat. The unconditioned response to the loud noises was fear and crying, and therefore when paired with the white rat, it became the conditioned response. 46. Physiologically, what do most addictive drugs have in common? A. They decrease the reuptake of serotonin. B. They attach to receptors on the presynaptic neuron. *C. They increase the release of dopamine. D. They increase blood flow to the brain. Answer: C. Addictive substances stimulate dopamine synapses in the nucleus acumens, a brain area associated with attention, and increase the release of dopamine. 47. Which of the following is most common among people with major depression? A. Excessive eating *B. Sleep abnormalities C. Rapid heart rate D. Joint laxity (“double-jointedness”) Answer: B. Major depression is a condition in which a person experiences little interest, pleasure, or motivation for weeks at a time. Nearly all depressed people experience sleep abnormalities, such as entering REM faster than average, or waking up early and being unable to fall back asleep. 48. What appears to be true about the genes that predispose someone to depression? *A. They also increase the risk of many other disorders. B. They also increase the probability of high intelligence and creativity. C. They are located mostly on the X chromosome. D. They act mostly by altering the speed of action potentials. Answer: A. Several genes have been linked to depression, some that are also related to substance abuse, antisocial personality disorder, ADD, bulimia nervosa, and migraine headache, and some that are also related to blood circulation disorders. Also, many individuals with depression also suffer from other disorders such as GAD. 49. For the symptoms of schizophrenia, what is the difference between a hallucination and a delusion? *A. A hallucination is a false perception. A delusion is a false belief. B. A hallucination is a false belief. A delusion is a false perception. C. A hallucination is a repetitive thought. A delusion is a repetitive action. D. A hallucination is a repetitive action. A delusion is a repetitive thought. Answer: A. Hallucinations are perceptions that do not correspond to anything in the real world, while delusions are beliefs that are strongly held despite a lack of evidence for them. 50. If about half the people receiving some type of therapy for depression show improvement within six months, why does that fact probably overstate the effectiveness of the therapy? A. Only the most depressed people seek treatment. B. Only the least depressed people seek treatment. C. Six months is too long to wait for improvement. *D. Many people would improve even without treatment. Answer: D. Spontaneous remission is psychological improvement without therapy, therefore therapy can only be considered effective if its results are better than those of spontaneous remission. Final Exam General Psychology – UC Berkeley 1. What do we call a strategy for simplifying a problem and finding a good enough answer? *A. A heuristic B. An algorithm C. A preattentive process D. An attentive process Answer: A. A heuristic is a strategy for simplifying a problem and generating a satisfactory guess, or a problem-solving shortcut. 2. What is a simple explanation for the mere exposure effect? A. Familiarity breeds contempt. *B. Familiarity increases liking. C. Familiarity impairs memory. D. Familiarity increases attention. Answer: B. The mere exposure effect is the principle that the more often we come into contact with someone or something, the more we tend to like that person or object. 3. The neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia emphasizes the potential catalysts for the eventual development of the disorder during events that fall under which time of life? *A. Prenatal/infant development (before birth to 1 year of age) B. The preschool era (ages 2 to 4) C. Childhood (ages 6 to 10) D. Adolescence (ages 11 to 16) Answer: B. According to the neurodevelopmental hypothesis, schizophrenia originates with nervous system impairments that develop before birth or in early childhood because of either genetics or early environment, especially prenatal environment. 4. What two types of cells compose the central nervous system? A. Gametes and autosomal cells *B. Neurons and glia C. Sympathetic cells and parasympathetic cells D. Axons and dendrites Answer: B. The central nervous system contains neurons, brain cells that include a cell body, a dendrite, and an axon, and glia, cells that support neurons in many ways, such as by insulating them, synchronizing activity among neighboring neurons, and removing waste products. 5. What is the primary function of a neuron’s axon? A. It insulates the neuron from other cells. B. It contains the chromosomes, and it synthesizes new proteins. *C. It conducts information toward other cells. D. It receives information from other cells. Answer: C. The neuron’s axon is a single, long, thin, straight fiber with branches near its tip. It transmits information to other cells. 6. Drugs that affect behavior exert their effects mainly by what means? A. They increase or decrease the synthesis of hormones. B. They increase or decrease the velocity of action potentials. *C. They increase or decrease activity at certain synapses. D. They increase or decrease blood flow to the brain. Answer: C. Synapses are specialized junctions between one neuron and another, in which a neuron releases a chemical that either excites or inhibits the next neuron. Drugs that affect behavior typically exert their effects here at the synapses. 7. Vision is most impaired after damage to which lobe of the cerebral cortex? A. Frontal B. Parietal *C. Occipital D. Temporal Answer: C. The occipital lobe, located at the rear of the head, is specialized for vision. A version with damage in this area has cortical blindness, in which they have no visual imagery, even in dreams. 8. For most people, only the left hemisphere of the brain controls which of these? *A. Speech B. Hearing C. Emotion D. Vision Answer: A. For almost all right-handed people and more than 60% of left-handed people, the left hemisphere controls speech. 9. What does fMRI measurement indicate? A. Which axons are absorbing the most sodium *B. Which brain areas are requiring blood for oxygen C. Which sense organs are delivering the most information D. Which genes are producing the most protein Answer: B. A fMRI, or functional magnetic resonance imaging, uses magnetic detectors outside the head to compare the amounts of hemoglobin with and without oxygen in different brain areas. 10. The “binding problem” that is described by psychologists refers to which question? *A. How does sensory activity in separate brain areas produce a unified experience? B. How do children learn the expectations that their culture imposes? C. How does oxytocin increase the social attachment between people? D. How can we get groups with a history of hostility and distrust to work together? Answer: A. The binding problem is the question of how separate brain areas combine forces to produce a unified perception of a single object. 11. What structure of the eye changes its shape to focus our vision on objects at various distances? A. Pupil B. Fovea *C. Lens D. Iris Answer: C. The lens is a flexible structure in the eye that varies its thickness, enabling the eye to adjust its focus for objects at different distances. 12. Which part of the retina, if any, has the greatest proportion of cones, relative to rods? A. The periphery *B. The fovea C. The area surrounding the blind spot D. All parts have equal proportions. Answer: B. The fovea is the central area of the human retina, which consists solely of cones (used for color vision). 13. The opponent-process theory of color vision explains which of these observations? A. From a greater distance, blue dots look black, although other small dots keep their color. B. You can easily recognize an object’s color even while wearing tinted glasses. *C. After you stare at a bright color for a minute, you look away and see a different color. D. Color vision becomes weaker and weaker toward the periphery of the retina. Answer: C. The opponent-process theory argues that we perceive color in terms of paired opposites, red versus green, yellow versus blue, and white versus black, which is why when you stare at a certain color for a moment, then look away you will see a different color. 14. Which of these theories best explains the phenomenon of color constancy? A. Trichromatic theory *B. Retinex theory C. Opponent-process theory D. String theory Answer: B. Color constancy is the tendency of an object to appear nearly the same color under a variety of lighting conditions. It is explained by retinex theory, which proposes that the cerebral cortex compares the patterns of light coming from different parts of the retina and synthesizes a color perception for each area. 15. What does Gestalt psychology emphasize? A. How we coordinate vision with movement B. How unconscious motivations and emotions influence visual perception C. The function of each neuron as a feature detector *D. How we perceive a complex pattern as a whole Answer: D. Gestalt psychology is a field that emphasizes perception of overall patterns. Gestalt psychologists believe the whole is different from the sum of its parts. 16. What do we call the psychologists who study only observable actions when exploring psychological concepts? A. Psychoanalysts B. Humanistic psychologists *C. Behaviorists D. Structuralists Answer: C. Behaviorism is a field of psychology that concentrates on observable, measurable behaviors and not on mental processes. 17. If you want to produce classical conditioning, what procedure should you use? A. Pair the unconditioned stimulus with the unconditioned response. *B. Pair the conditioned stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus. C. Pair the conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response. D. Present the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Answer B. In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus first produces an unconditioned response. When the conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus over time, the conditioned stimulus will also elicit the same response, called the conditioned response when it is a response to the conditioned stimulus. 18. A dog that was trained to salivate at the sight of a white square also salivates somewhat at the sight of a gray square. What is the dog displaying? *A. Stimulus generalization B. Extinction C. Spontaneous recovery D. Acquisition Answer: A. Stimulus generalization is the extension of a conditioned response from the training stimulus to similar stimuli. Because the white and grey squares are similar, this example would be stimulus generalization. 19. What is a major difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning? *A. In operant conditioning, the learner’s response controls what happens next. B. Classical conditioning associates three events instead of two. C. Responses learned in operant conditioning are rapidly forgotten unless rehearsed often. D. Classical conditioning controls skeletal muscles; operant conditioning controls the viscera. Answer: A. Classical conditioning is defined in the answer for question 17. Operant conditioning (called operant because it involves the subject operating on the environment), is the process of changing behavior by providing a reinforcement after a response. The main difference between the two types of conditioning is that in operant conditioning, the subject’s behavior produces and outcome that affects future behavior, while in classical conditioning the subject’s behavior has no effect on the outcome. 20. What do positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement have in common with each other? *A. They both strengthen a behavior. B. They both weaken a behavior. C. They both depend on presenting some stimulus. D. They both depend on avoiding some stimulus. Answer: A. Reinforcement always increases the probability of a behavior. Positive reinforcement is presenting something good to reinforce, and negative reinforcement is taking away something bad to reinforce. 21. What kind of material did Ebbinghaus use in his studies of memory? A. Recollections from childhood B. Songs C. Bible verses *D. Nonsense syllables Answer: D. Ebbinghaus taught individuals nonsense syllables in his memory research, such that he was able to control the content of the memories. 22. If you remember “MSTRDMCPNHGN” as “AMSTERDAM and COPENHAGEN, but without the vowels,” you improve your memory by what? A. Confabulation *B. Chunking C. Procedural memory D. Hypermnesia Answer: B. Chunking is a method of storing more information in short-term memory by grouping items into meaningful sequences or clusters. The letters in MSTRDMCPNHGN are meaningless alone, but if they are chunked as the consonants in AMSTERDAM and COPENHAGEN they become easier to remember. 23. Remembering a fact or principle is which type of memory? A. Episodic *B. Semantic C. Procedural D. Implicit Answer: B. Semantic memory is memory of principles and facts. Episodic is memory of specific events in your life. 24. According to the depth-of-processing principle, what improves your memory of something? A. Repeating it as many times as possible B. Holding it in short-term memory as long as possible C. Strengthening synapses in the center of the brain *D. Thinking about its meaning Answer: D. The depth-of-processing principle posits that how easily you retrieve a memory depends on the number and types of associations you form. Thinking about the meaning of something is a deeper level of processing than repeating it, and therefore it you will be likely to remember it better. 25. The early IQ tests developed in France were modified to become which English-language test? A. Progressive Matrices test B. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children *C. Stanford-Binet test D. Scholastic Aptitude Test Answer: C. French psychologists Alfred Binet and Theophile Simon devised the first IQ tests. Their original test was later modified for English speakers by Stanford psychologists and publishes as the Stanford-Binet IQ test. 26. What does it mean if a 6-year-old and an adult both have an IQ score of 120 on a modern era intelligence test? A. Each of them answered the same number of questions. *B. Each did equally well, relative to other people of their own age. C. The 6-year-old is more intelligent than the adult. D. The adult is more intelligent than the 6-year-old. Answer: B. IQ tests tend to be computed such that a given IQ score means the same at different ages, therefore the mean IQ score at each age is 100. If a 6-year-old and an adult both score 120, that means each did equally well relative to people at their own age. 27. The ways in which people of different generations differ from one another are defined as what? *A. Cohort effects B. Negative aftereffects C. Adaptation effects D. Reinforcement effects Answer: A. A cohort is a group of people born at a particular time or a group of people who enter an organization at a particular time. Therefore, the ways in which people of different generations differ is called a cohort effect. 28. Which of these best describes Jean Piaget’s view of children’s cognitive development? A. Children have to develop socially and emotionally before they develop cognitively. B. Children’s cognitive development depends mostly on memorization. *C. Children’s thinking is qualitatively different from that of adults. D. Children think like adults, except that they are slower and less confident. Answer: C. Piaget argues that children have qualitatively different thought processes from adults. He believed that, as children develop intellectually, they do more than accumulate facts, they also construct new mental processes. 29. Which is the final one of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development? *A. The formal operations stage B. The preoperational stage C. The concrete operations stage D. The sensorimotor stage Answer: A. The final stage of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development is the formal operations stage, which occurs about 11 years and onward. In this stage, adolescents develop logical, deductive reasoning and systematic planning skills. 30. Mary Ainsworth’s famous “Strange Situation” attempts to evaluate which of the following? A. Children’s choices between a small reward now and a larger one later *B. Children’s attachment to their mothers or other people C. Children’s understanding of complex or ambiguous sentences D. Children’s understanding of basic physical principles Answer: B. The Strange Situation is a procedure to measure attachment styles in which a mother and her infant (typically 12 to 18 months old) come into a room with many toys. Then a stranger enters the room. The mother leaves and then returns. A few minutes later, both the stranger and the mother leave. Then the stranger returns, and finally, the mother returns. Through a one-way mirror, a psychologist observes the infant’s reactions to each coming and going. 31. The primacy effect in impression formation emphasizes which of these influences? A. The most recent thing you learned about someone *B. The first thing you learned about someone C. The most favorable thing you learned about someone D. The least favorable thing you learned about someone Answer: B. The primacy effect is the tendency to remember the first things you learn about something or someone. 32. What is the fundamental attribution error? *A. A tendency to overemphasize internal attributions for other people’s behaviors B. A tendency to overemphasize external attributions for other people’s behaviors C. A tendency to make attributions quickly without examining the facts D. A tendency to delay too long about making attributions Answer: A. The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to make internal attributions for people’s behavior even when we see evidence for an external influence on behavior. 33. In his research on obedience, what did Milgram measure? *A. The behavior of the “teacher” B. The behavior of the “learner” C. The behavior of the “experimenter” D. The behavior of both the “teacher” and the “learner” Answer: A. In Milgram’s experiment, the participant was always assigned the role of the “teacher”, while a confederate (a person who was secretly part of the experiment) was assigned the “learner” role. The teacher was then told by an authority figure to shock the learner when the learner answered memory questions incorrectly (the learner was not actually being shocked, but recordings make it sound as if they were). Milgram was interested in the effect of authority on the participant, the “teacher.” 34. In his classic study, how did Solomon Asch measure conformity in his experiments? A. He compared students’ opinions to those of others in their fraternity or sorority. B. He examined jurors’ opinions before and after the jury deliberation. *C. He asked for visual judgments of people after other people gave wrong answers. D. He made hand gestures and observed how many people copied him. Answer: C. Asch’s study involved showing individuals a photo of a line, and another photo with several lines on it, and asking participants to identify the line with the same length as the first photo. The activity was very easy and obvious, but the participant was in a room with several confederates that all provided the wrong answer. Asch measured conformity by whether the participant conformed to others’ answers or provided the obvious, correct answer. 35. Based on the results from the “line experiment”, in which situation would you be LEAST likely to conform to the opinions of the majority? A. If you see that the majority is clearly wrong B. If you are outnumbered by only three or four to one *C. If you are outnumbered by a large group, but you have one ally D. If you are afraid of being ridiculed Answer: C. In Asch’s line experiment (see #34 for an explanation), he found that most people conformed to the majority, even though they knew the answer was wrong. This pattern continued with there were only 34 others in the group as well, but people conformed less in a large group when they had at least one ally who agreed with them. 36. How did psychologists initially identify the Big Five personality traits? A. They identified five major genes that control certain aspects of social behavior. B. They assembled the points of agreement in the theories of Freud, Jung, and Adler. C. They observed the behavior of children in school and at play in several cultures. *D. They looked for trait-like words that described personality in the English language. Answer: D. Psychologists Gordon Allport and H.S. Odbert developed a personality test by collecting 18,000 words from the dictionary, and narrowing it down. Raymond Cattell then narrowed this list to 35 traits and psychologists eventually used cluster analyses to narrow the Big 5 down to neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to new experiences. 37. Which of these is NOT one of the Big Five personality dimensions? A. Agreeableness B. Openness to experience C. Conscientiousness *D. Playfulness Answer: D. The Big 5 personality traits are neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to new experiences. 38. In Albert Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” experiment, children displayed modeling when they A. cuddled with the doll after seeing someone else do that. B. cuddled with the doll after being frustrated by the researcher. C. struck the doll after being frustrated by the researcher. *D. struck the doll after watching an adult strike the doll. Answer: D. In Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment, one group of children watched a film of an adult attacking a bobo doll, and the other group watched a different film. After the children were left in a room with a Bobo doll, and only those that watched the attack film attacked the bobo doll themselves, modeling their behavior after the behavior seen in the video. 39. What is the abbreviation for the manual of standards for diagnosing mental illness—at least for the manual used by most clinicians in the United States? *A. DSM B. IAT C. WISC D. MMPI Answer: A. The DSM is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which sets specific criteria for each psychological diagnosis. 40. Exposure therapy is an example of which general process of therapy? A. Social-cognitive *B. Behavioral C. Bio-medical D. Humanistic Answer: B. Exposure therapy is a type of behavioral therapy in which the patient is exposed to their phobia repeatedly while also working with a therapist to address the response. 41. Psychologists developed the concept of spreading activation to explain what phenomenon? *A. Hearing a word primes you to think of related words. B. Trying to do two things at the same time impairs performance of at least one of them. C. Many highly emotional people also tend to be highly creative. D. People who can control their attention well also control their emotions well. Answer: A. Spreading activation is thinking about, seeing, or hearing a concept, which then activates or primes the concepts linked to it. 42. Who is more likely to be diagnosed with anxiety disorders or depression, men or women? *A. Both are more common in women. B. Both are more common in men. C. Women have more anxiety disorders and men have more depression. D. Women have more depression and men have more anxiety disorders. Answer: A. Women are more likely to be diagnosed with both anxiety disorders and depression than men are. 43. Which clinical therapy approach concentrates on changing people’s interpretation of events? A. Behavioral therapy *B. Cognitive therapy C. Psychodynamic therapy D. Person-centered therapy Answer: B. Cognitive therapy seeks to improve psychological well-being by changing people’s interpretation of events. 44. Which of these is a major criticism of the manual currently used to classify clinical disorders? A. It is based too heavily on the theories of Freud. B. It relies too heavily on genetic testing. *C. Most people do not fit neatly into any of the categories found in the manual. D. It offers too few choices for diagnosis. Answer: C. The DSM has many different classifications for different disorders and the symptoms that are indicative of these disorders, but most people do not fit neatly into any of the categories because symptoms may overlap with order disorders or there may be additional or fewer symptoms than the manual describes. 45. In the study that examined how phobias of snakes could develop in monkeys, what was found to be a primary cause for monkeys to form a strong fear of snakes? A. Monkeys are born with that fear. *B. Monkeys can develop that fear by seeing another monkey show fear of snakes. C. Monkeys learn a fear of snakes only by getting a bite from a snake. D. Monkeys learn a fear of snakes by pairing a snake with an unpleasant stimulus. Answer: B. Researchers notices that wild-born monkeys have a fear of snakes but that lab monkeys do not. In order to understand how monkeys develop a fear of snakes, experimenters put a lab-born and wild-born monkey together, and let the lab-born monkey see the wild-born monkey exhibit a fear response after seeing a snake. Later, they tested the lab-born monkey’s response to a snake and found that it then also showed fear, indicating that it was a learned response. 46. What is the best way to evaluate the effectiveness of psychotherapy? A. Compare people who entered psychotherapy versus those who chose not to. *B. Randomly assign people to therapy or a waiting group. C. Evaluate clients before and after therapy, by their self-evaluations. D. Evaluate clients before and after therapy, by the therapist’s evaluations. Answer: B. The best way to evaluate the effectiveness of psychotherapy is to randomly assign people to a therapy or waiting group, then compare the two groups. The reason behind this is two-fold. First, individuals may experience spontaneous remission without therapy so there needs to be a group to compare to the therapy group. Additionally, there may be confounding differences in individuals who seek therapy and those who do not, so comparing these groups would not control for those. Instead, comparing a group that wants therapy but is put on a waiting list, and a group that actually receives therapy is the most valid method of determining if that therapy worked. 47. What do backward masking, flash suppression, and binocular rivalry have in common? A. They are ways to measure the current activity of various brain areas. B. They are ways to increase arousal of a patient in a minimally conscious state. C. They are ways to probe the motivations and emotions of the unconscious mind. *D. They are ways to present a stimulus so someone will not be conscious of it. Answer: D. Backward masking is a technique involving presenting one stimulus immediately after another brief, target stimulus, usually leading to a failure in consciously perceiving the first stimulus. Flash suppression is a visual perception phenomenon in which an image presented to one eye is suppressed by a flash of another image presented to the other eye. Binocular rivalry is the alternation between seeing a pattern in the left retina and a pattern in the right retina when two patterns are looked at with separate eyes. All three are methods of presenting a stimulus such that the individual is not conscious of it. 48. What causes you so quickly to notice one red tree within a forest of green trees? A. The availability heuristic B. The representativeness heuristic C. A top-down process *D. A bottom-up process Answer: D. Bottom-up processing is processing in which tiny elements combine to produce larger items, and is therefore the type of processing that would be used to detect one red tree among many green ones. Topdown processing, instead, involves applying your experience and expectations to interpret each item in context, which would not be necessary for noticing a different colored tree. 49. What is “change blindness”? A. A period of decreased vision while you move your eyes *B. Failure to notice a change in a complex scene C. Impaired visual perception after a traumatic experience D. Improved hearing by people after they become blind Answer: B. Change blindness is the failure to detect changes in parts of a scene. While if something moves in a scene quickly, you may notice it, but if things are moving slowly, change blindness is likely to occur. 50. The “framing effect” studied by cognitive psychologists explores our tendency to do what? A. To overestimate the accuracy of your answers to difficult questions *B. To answer a question differently when it is phrased differently C. To overlook base-rate information D. To think of an object only in terms of the most common way of using it Answer: B. The framing effect is the tendency to answer a question differently when it is framed differently.