1. Surprisingly, sibling studies suggest that the most important factor for all of our big 5 traits appears to be A. our shared environments. B. our-non shared environments. C. our genetics. D. our exposure to viruses at a young age. ANSWER: B % Correct: 88 Though a lot of weight has been put on the importance of genetics over the years, and recent trends have suggested that genes and shared environments are more important than our first data indicated, for traits, our non-shared environments have been found to be the biggest factor in where we lie across all five factors. 2. What did Vygotsky mean by the term "the zone of proximal development"? A. The distance between what children know and what adults know. B. The difference between what a child does alone and what the child does with help. C. The time needed to make a transition from one of Piaget’s stages to another. D. Impaired performance on one task as a child improves on another one. ANSWER: B % Correct: 93 Lev Vygotsky, a famous Russian developmental psychologist, spent most of his career examining the topic of cognitive development. He, like Piaget, believed that children advanced in their ways of thinking about the world as they aged. Unlike Piaget, he contended that children could be accelerated through this process. He suggested that there were phases where the correct form of teaching—called scaffolding—could allow a child to learn a concept faster than he/she could learn this concept on his/her own. This phase was called a “zone of proximal development”. 3. How does a panic attack differ from a heart attack? A. A panic attack ends in a few minutes with the person feeling better. B. A panic attack does not produce chest pains. C. People can detect well in advance that they are about to have a panic attack. D. Panic attacks become more and more likely as people grow older. ANSWER: A % Correct: 68 Though many people experiencing panic attacks for the first time think that they’re experiencing a heart attack, there is one big difference between the two. Panic attacks don’t result in a prolonged feeling of pain/fear. Answers B, C and D for this question are statements that are not true of panic attacks. 4. The usual time for onset and diagnosis of schizophrenia is A. childhood B. young adulthood C. middle age D. old age ANSWER: B % Correct: 73 Though some people can be diagnosed with schizophrenia during childhood—this is rare—and some can go until late adulthood before displaying symptoms of the disorder, most individuals diagnosed with this disorder begin showing onset signs in their early adulthood years. These symptoms can come on slowly for some, quickly for others. 5. Trust vs. mistrust, intimacy vs. isolation, and generativity vs. stagnation are stages in A. Freud's stages of psychosexual development. B. Erikson's ages of social and emotional development. C. Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning. D. Maslow's hierarchy of needs. ANSWER: B % Correct: 93 These dichotomies listed on this question all relate to the different questions about identity that Erik Erikson proposed we all focus on during different stages in our identity development. For example, in our very early months of life, Erickson said we ask about whether or not we can trust those that are close to us in our environment. Erickson suggested that the decisions that we make during each stage stay with us for life. He also argued that they impact our perception of who we are, as well as our perception of the world around us. 6. Our political bias has been shown to be A. entirely caused by genetics. B. mildly linked to genetics. C. strongly linked to genetics. D. not correlated with genetics at all. ANSWER: C % Correct: 24 This was apparently an “unfair” question based on the results. Everyone was given credit for it because of the low percent of students that got the answer correct. With that being said, the answer to this question was C. It alluded to an interesting finding that we came across in the heritability literature. Specifically, though many studies have downplayed the impact of genetics, research on political bias and heritability actually suggests that our genes are a very big factor in the development of our political beliefs. 7. Which of the following characteristics has shown to almost universally decline (on average) between successive siblings in a family, regardless of the size of the family? A. extraversion B. rebelliousness C. IQ D. competitiveness ANSWER: C % Correct: 78 Though birth order research has become a little less of a hot topic in recent years, Frank Sulloway championed research on this idea for a considerable number of years. We have examined many different topics related to the concept of birth order, but the one that caught people’s attention the most related to the topic of intelligence. Studies have shown that there is often a change in many personality traits and other characteristics of siblings across the birth order spectrum, but few studies have shown anything as unique as the consistent decline in IQ that we find across younger siblings in families of various sizes. 8. Pseudohermaphrodites A. contain the genetic material for both male and female biological features. B. contain the genetic material for both male and female biological features, but don’t show either. C. contain sex organs that are different from what their genetic information indicates. D. choose to identify with the opposite gender than what they were born as. ANSWER: C % Correct: 56 This was a definition based question referring to a topic discussed during the gender lecture from class. Though this question didn’t go below the threshold that would qualify it as a bad question, a very high percentage of students got this question wrong. The topic of hermaphrodites revolves around individuals that have an atypical presentation of their sex related organs. By definition, hermaphrodites contain both male and female genitalia. Pseudohermaphrodites only contain the genitalia of one gender, but there is a mismatch between the genitalia present and the biological gender of an individual. 9. Systematic desensitization is a special type of which psychotherapy? A. psychoanalysis B. family therapy C. behavior therapy D. cognitive therapy ANSWER: C % Correct: 69 Though this was discussed briefly in the lectures, this question relates directly to the readings that discussed the different psychotherapeutic techniques. Systematic desensitization involves gradually exposing individuals to greater and greater amounts of something that evokes a strong emotional response (usually fear) in order to reduce the potency of the emotional reaction to that thing over time. This idea can be tied to the concept of classical conditioning—specifically, it is an attempt to remove an emotional tie that has formed through a classically conditioned pairing. Because of this, we identify systematic desensitization as a type of therapy found in the behavioral approach to therapy. 10. Most, if not all, highly addictive substances have one property in common: A. they increase people's desire to be with other people. B. they are soluble in water, but not in fats. C. they stimulate certain types of dopamine synapses in the brain. D. the more times a person has taken them, the greater their effects. ANSWER: C % Correct: 99 Many substances and experiences in our environment become very pleasurable and addictive for the same reason. When we experience something pleasurable, we experience a huge spike in the activity of neurons using dopamine in our amygdala. This rush of dopamine is believed to make us not only feel good, but it also entices us to find a way to recreate that dopaminergic surge in the future. This craving for another dopamine rush is believed to be the reason behind the addictive cravings that we get for many recreational drugs and additive experiences. 11. The concept of gender dimorphism discusses the A. moments when someone is genetically undifferentiated with respect to gender. B. interaction between the genetic and social factors surrounding gender. C. interaction between both genders during adolescence. D. belief in two or multiple genders. ANSWER: B % Correct: 80 This was a definition question for the most part. Though many topics about gender are explored by psychologists, the term gender dimorphism is used to describe the roles that both our social environment and biology play in the development of our gender identity. 12. In gender research, if Contrice defines himself as homosexual, this identification relates to his A. gender identity. B. gender structure. C. phylum. D. erotic orientation. ANSWER: D % Correct: 88 This was another definition based question. When people are discussing terms like heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual, even though their gender identity does need to be considered in order to clarify what the person’s sexuality actually entails, we link these terms to a person’s erotic (sexual) orientation. 13. With regard to schizophrenia, hallucinations are considered a __________ symptom and delusions are a __________ symptom. A. positive; positive B. positive; negative C. negative; positive D. negative; negative ANSWER: A % Correct: 84 When discussing the symptoms of schizophrenia, people often use the terms “positive” and “negative” to discuss them. Though positive symptoms sound good on the surface, they actually relate to thoughts and/or behaviors that individuals with schizophrenia are displaying that others without the disorder do not display. Delusions and hallucinations are the two most common positive symptoms of schizophrenia that we see. 14. What might you observe in adolescents to predict who will become depressed later in life? A. eating problems B. vision problems C. sleep problems D. anger problems ANSWER: C % Correct: 70 Though there is an occasional link between both eating and anger problems with depression, these links are tenuous at best. There is, however, a very strong link between sleep issues and depression. Some studies have indicated that sleep issues could be a cause of depression related symptoms, others have suggested that sleep issues are just an indicator of depression, and some have proposed that depression triggers sleep related issues. However, directionality issues aside, there is no denying the link between depression and sleep problems. 15. An androgynous person is _______ in masculinity and ________ in femininity. A. high; low B. low; high C. low; low D. high; high ANSWER: D % Correct: 70 This question related to the four different gender types that we can identify based on a person’s gender related behaviors. Though many individuals often display behaviors that reflect their biological gender and gender identity—while simultaneously not displaying behaviors that don’t reflect their biological gender and gender identity—there are some individuals that display behaviors that reflect both or neither gender. When someone is high in both masculine and feminine related behaviors, we refer to these individuals as androgynous. 16. Which of the following topics would an experimental psychopathologist NOT explore? A. The effectiveness of a treatment for depression B. The performance on an eye tracking task of those diagnosed with schizophrenia and those who haven’t been diagnosed C. The variance in the production of a neurotransmitter between someone diagnosed with a new disorder and someone that isn’t D. The memory capacity of individuals with developmental disorders ANSWER: A % Correct: 57 Experimental psychopathologists can study topics related to clinical psychology from a variety of different angles. However, their main goal is always to examine the nature of disorders or symptoms related to them. Their branch of research doesn’t cover the topic of treatment. This means that they wouldn’t compare the effectiveness of different treatments for disorders. Clinical psychologists—usually those with a research focused background—would be the ones that study these topics. 17. Someone focusing on the diathesis portion of the diathesis-stress model would look for ________ linked to the development of a disorder. A. genetic markers B. mental interpretations C. childhood exposures D. emotional experiences ANSWER: A % Correct: 82 This was a definition based question. In the diathesis-stress model, the term diathesis refers to the biological predispositions that people possess that can push them towards a higher or lower proclivity for developing a disorder. The only answer listed above that focuses on biological predispositions is answer A, which was genetic markers. 18. Using the heritability approach that we discussed in the class, Loehlin and colleagues were able to show that the biggest factor predicting our gender role identification was A. genetics. B. shared environments. C. non-shared environments. D. genetics, shared environments, and non-shared environments almost equally. ANSWER: C % Correct: 62 Though it seems intuitive that our gender identity is primarily linked to our genetic material, research suggests that the way we are treated by others plays a much bigger role in our gender identity. This might seem counterintuitive, but you have to remember that people don’t just randomly treat others in a specific way that pushes them to form their gender identity. Instead, they often use the person’s biological gender to determine how to interact with them. 19. Exposure to bright lights for a few hours a day is the recommended treatment for which disorder? A. generalized anxiety disorder B. cocaine abuse C. seasonal affective disorder D. paranoid schizophrenia ANSWER: C % Correct: 85 The only issue listed above that can be remedied at all by using bring lights is seasonal affective disorder. In fact, the realization that light therapy can work for seasonal affective disorder and no other mood disorder is a prime justification for defining this disorder as something that is distinct from the other mood disorders. 20. Compared to antidepressant drug therapy, cognitive therapy has the advantage of A. producing more long-lasting benefits. B. working more quickly. C. being less expensive. D. being easier for the therapist. ANSWER: A % Correct: 95 Though drug therapies are often cheaper, work much more quickly, and are much easier to administer, they do have one big issue in comparison to cognitive therapy—they don’t produce the same long-term effects. Most people taking different drugs for a variety of different disorders often see a return to their disorder related symptoms very soon after going off of the drugs that helped curb the symptoms. In fact, the only people that typically don’t see a return of their symptoms are those who attempt to address the social/behavioral/cognitive issues that are linked to their specific disorder while they are on the drugs. 21. At what age do children typically start being able to identify gender? A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 ANSWER: B % Correct: 83 This was an identification question. Though it seems a bit early, research has consistently shown that children are already differentiating between the genders and gender related behaviors, while also recognizing their own gender identity, by about the age of 2. That being said, some research has suggested that it takes a few more years before children recognize the permanence of gender, and even longer before they recognize the various atypical gender identities that people can possess. 22. Which of the following is the clearest example of a cohort effect? A. People with more practice at Sudoku puzzles solve them faster. B. On average, Mexicans eat spicy foods more often than Americans do. C. Old people play active sports less often now than when they were young. D. Today’s young people know more about computers than their grandparents do. ANSWER: D % Correct: 80 A cohort effect is a term used by developmental psychologists who are exploring the sources of various characteristics of individuals. Cohorts are different groups of individuals born at approximately the same time. Cohort effects are effects that impact an entire age group at a specific point in time because they experience the effect similarly—with other age groups not experiencing the same effect because they are at a different point in their lives when this effect occurs. The only answer above that meets this standard is answer D. 23. Object permanence refers to the idea that A. objects continue to exist even when we don't see them. B. objects we see continue to exist even when we aren't talking about them. C. objects permanently exist in one location. D. the substance of an object remains constant even when its form changes. ANSWER: A % Correct: 93 This was a definition question—and apparently a fairly easy one. Object permanence, a topic first introduced by Jean Piaget, involves our ability to recognize that objects continue to exist, and retain their physical properties, even when we don’t see them. Piaget argued that children begin to comprehend this issue during the sensorimotor stage. 24. If a child lacks “theory of mind,” what does the child fail to understand? A. A mother could be someone else’s daughter. B. Appearances can be different from reality. C. It is possible to perform operations and then reverse them. D. Some people know things that other people don’t know. ANSWER: D % Correct: 88 The concept of theory of mind involves our ability to identify the thoughts, experiences, and mindset of other individuals. Someone possessing theory of mind can better postulate what someone else is thinking, what they know and don’t know, and how they might be experiencing a specific event. Those that don’t possess this ability think that everything they experience, know, think, and feel is the same is what everyone else is experiencing, knowing, thinking, and feeling. The answer that matches this topic is answer D. 25. Adolescents who have not explored their future and have not made any decisions are said to have A. identity achievement. B. identity foreclosure. C. identity moratorium. D. identity diffusion. ANSWER: D % Correct: 49 This question relates to the work of James Marcia on identity statuses. Marcia proposed that we probably are at one of four different points in our identity status at any given point in our life. Identity diffusion is the identity status where we have not considered our identity and have not made any decisions. 26. One well-established effect of hypnosis is to A. inhibit pain. B. give people greater strength than they could otherwise have. C. improve memory. D. eliminate certain bad habits forever. ANSWER: A % Correct: 82 Though there are a lot of people that are skeptical about the topic of hypnosis, there is research that suggests that this form of altered consciousness does indeed exist. With that being said, there is also a lot of research that indicates that many of the beliefs about what occurs during hypnosis are false. The only answer above that has been established as an effect that can occur while someone is hypnotized is answer A. People under hypnosis can definitely tolerate a great deal of pain if they are properly instructed to do so while in their hypnotic state. 27. Franz Anton Mesmer, the first practitioner of hypnosis, believed that the effects he produced were due to A. the power of suggestion. B. animal magnetism coming from his body. C. telepathy. D. suppression of activity in the cerebral cortex. ANSWER: B % Correct: 67 Franz Anton Mesmer has to be considered as one of the most “interesting” individuals linked to the history of psychology. Though he is credited for discovering the process of hypnosis, his ideas surrounding its source and effects were very inaccurate. In his estimation, hypnosis was occurring as a result of a magnet’s—and then his own magnetic hand’s—ability to unblock the flow of fluids within the brain that were causing different mental ailments. This unblocking of these fluids were also believed to make the person more susceptible to persuasion while the powers of the magnets were are work. .28. The Thematic Apperception Test is said to determine someone’s A. explicit memory. B. implicit memory. C. explicit motivation. D. implicit motivation. ANSWER: D % Correct: 66 The TAT, one of our more popular projective tests that have been designed over the years, was created in an attempt to explore a variety of different motivations that a person possessed. In the TAT, people are asked to describe different aspects of a series of ambiguous photographs that they’re shown. The general idea behind the measurements obtained from the responses is that a person’s drives will reveal themselves in the stories that the person is telling. Since the TAT doesn’t ask a person directly about their motives, we consider this an implicit test. The validity of this test has been highly questioned as a result of several different studies on that topic. 29. John Locke’s belief in the “tabula rasa” spoke to the _________ view of knowledge development. A. nativist B. constructivist C. ecological D. empiricist ANSWER: D % Correct: 59 The “tabula rasa”—or “blank slate”—idea introduced by John Locke spoke to the debate about where our abilities and knowledge of the world arose. Locke proposed that we are all born as an empty receptacle. He implied that the only individual differences that we displayed were a result of environmental exposures, nothing inborn. This belief is at the heart of the empiricist approach to knowledge and abilities. 30. If a person practices a difficult new motor task before going to sleep A. memory of how to perform that task declines as time passes during sleep. B. the hands will twitch during the night as if the person were performing the task. C. the person will have less than the usual amount of REM sleep that night. D. the brain areas that were active during learning become active during sleep. ANSWER: D % Correct: 95 This question related to the sleep readings from the textbook. It examined the question that many psychologists have asked— what are the benefits of sleep? One of the potential answers to this question can be found in the research relating to this specific question. During sleep, we do indeed display higher rates of neural activity in the areas of our brains that we were using when we were awake. This effect is especially prominent when we examine people while they engage In REM sleep. 31. What does an investigator examine in a cross-sectional design? A. different people (of different ages) at one point in time B. a single group of people at several points in time C. different species of animal D. people from different countries or cultures ANSWER: A % Correct: 94 Though the term cross-sectional design might pop up in other contexts, the only time a cross-sectional design was mentioned in this course was when we were discussing research that developmental psychologists conduct. In cross-sectional designs, researchers attempt to understand different aspects of change over time by comparing different cohorts of individuals at the same time. This design is an alternative to the longitudinal design, which can be very time consuming. With that being said, cross-sectional designs cannot control for cohort effects, which makes them equally concerning to researchers in this area. 32. The final note of the “unconscious mental life” lecture can best be summed up in which of the following statements? A. Freud’s concept of the unconscious was surprisingly accurate. B. Though unconscious motives exist, almost no other form of unconscious mental life has been proven to exist. C. Though unconscious emotions exist, almost no other form of unconscious mental life has been proven to exist. D. Though some research has suggested that there is a partially unconscious mental life, it has been very hard to detect that this mental life is very powerful in almost all cognitive activities. ANSWER: D % Correct: 82 Though there have been many Hollywood movies made on the topic, and even more stories told by folk lore enthusiasts, research on the exciting topic of unconscious mental life has been less exciting. Though there are indeed several cognitive functions that appear to operate on the “unconscious” level, the impact that these functions have on our daily lives, as well as the ability that we have to manipulate these components, is minimal at best. 33. You are monitoring the sleep of a healthy young woman. You note that a high percentage of her sleep has been occupied by REM sleep for the last hour. Which of the following is most likely? A. She has been having difficulty falling asleep. B. You are recording during the first hour or two of the night. C. You are recording during the middle of the night. D. You are recording near the end of her night's sleep. ANSWER: D % Correct: 48 At night, or sleep occurs in cycles. We start by cycling between a light and deep form of sleep. Stages in these early cycles last anywhere between 10 to 30 minutes long. After these initial cycles pass, our later hours of sleep tend to contain a fluctuation between REM, stage 2, and a little bit of what would be considered stage 1 of sleep. For most people, the majority of time during these final cycles is spent in REM sleep. 34. Which of the following is likely to cause people to ignore one half of the body? A. a history of physical abuse during childhood B. deprivation of opportunities for REM sleep C. drug treatments intended to relieve attention-deficit disorder D. damage to the right hemisphere of the brain ANSWER: D % Correct: 95 Though this type of effect is rare, the experience of hemisphere neglect can occur. When this occurs, people lose the ability to attend to information in one of their two visual fields, they lose the ability to control half of their body, and they also cannot detect information that travels from that half of their body. This hemisphere neglect has been found to results from damage to a hemisphere to the brain—usually the right hemisphere. 35. The difference between a mental illness and a developmental disorder is that developmental disorders A. form slowly in an individual. B. are considered present at birth. C. operate on a continuum. D. appear much later in life. ANSWER: B % Correct: 75 Though both mental illnesses and developmental disorders indicate severe deviations from typical behavior/thought patterns, they are conceptually different in one large way. Developmental disorders, as the name implies, are usually found at a young age and continue to develop as the person ages. Because of this gradual growth and early presence, it is often assumed that these disorders are less capable of being “treated,” and more of something that need to be “managed”. 36. To examine the primary factor behind the development of different characteristics, developmental psychologists compare the correlations of traits between A. adopted siblings and monozygotic twins. B. siblings and adopted siblings. C. monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins. D. siblings and dizygotic twins. ANSWER: C % Correct: 85 It is indeed true that researchers studying heritability usually focus on differences found between monozygotic and dizygotic twins. This hasn’t always been the case over the years, but most of our formulas that we use to determine the heritability of different characteristics comes from these pairings. These two were also the ones that we discussed in length during the heritability lectures. 37. Genetically, gender is linked to the ______ in our cells. A. production of protein combinations B. mitochondria C. 23rd chromosome pair D. temperature of the environment when conceived ANSWER: C % Correct: 100 As the entire class identified, our gender is determined by the combination of the 23rd pair of chromosomes in our cells. That being said, there have been some very unusual ideas that have been floated around over the years about where biological sex is established. Some research has even shown that certain species have their gender determined by ambient temperature during gestation. For humans, biological sex is entirely determined by the 23rd pair of chromosomes, and more specifically, the 23rd chromosome that the father passes onto his offspring. 38. Neuroses involve problems with _________, whereas psychosis involve problems with _________. A. reality testing; anxiety B. memory; anxiety C. anxiety; memory D. anxiety; reality testing ANSWER: D % Correct: 82 This is a definition question from the clinical psychology section. Though the terms neurosis and psychosis are not often used in today’s version of the field, they do still mean the same thing. A person that has a neurosis is struggling with an anxiety issue. There can be a number of reality testing issues with people defined as having a psychosis, but each psychosis does relate directly to reality issues. 39. What evidence says that newborn infants detect the difference between "ba" and "pa" sounds? A. Infant learn to look left after hearing "ba" and right after hearing "pa." B. An infant smiles after hearing a "pa" sound but not after hearing a "ba" sound. C. An infant sucks harder to turn on a "pa" sound than a "ba" sound. D. After habituating to a "ba" sound, an infant sucks harder after hearing "pa." ANSWER: D % Correct: 73 Much of our early infant comprehension work has been possible because of this topic of habituation. Since we cannot ask newborns what they know and don’t know—or what they can and cannot detect—we have to rely on alterations in their behavior when attempting to decipher their perception of the world around them. The primary way that developmental psychologists have studied changes in behavior relates to alterations in sucking rates that seem to be directly linked to the novelty of new stimuli in the environment. To be more specific, if an infant is exposed to something new, the infant will often such harder and faster on their pacifier. 40. Jean Piaget's main emphasis was that A. children in different stages think in different ways. B. developmental processes differ substantially among cultures. C. parenting style has a major influence on social development. D. positive reinforcement is more effective than punishment. ANSWER: A % Correct: 97 Piaget, the man many consider to be our first developmental psychologist, studied the topic of cognitive development. He established many tenets about development throughout his career, but the main belief that he had is listed in answer A. Piaget believed that we all progressed through a set series of stages as we developed cognitively from newborn to adult. He also contended that these progressions were natural and could not be sped up or slowed down due to something occurring in the environment. This last assumption has been challenged by many psychologists over the years. 41. Successive publications of the manual used to diagnose different mental disorders has shown a ________ in the number of diagnoses listed with each edition. A. steady increase B. steady decrease C. rise then fall D. fall then rise ANSWER: A % Correct: 96 When this class was run, we were currently using the fifth edition of the DSM. With each new publication thus far, the DSM has added a large number of different disorders to the list of ones that can be diagnosed in a person. It is true that some disorders like homosexuality have been removed from the manual in successive publications, but the number of new disorder classifications far outweigh the number of ones that are removed from publication to publication. 42. Research on the source of most disorders has suggested that _______ is/are critical to predict the development of disorders. A. both the diathesis and stress B. the diathesis, but not usually the stress C. the stress, but not usually the diathesis D. either the diathesis or the stress—depending upon the disorder ANSWER: A % Correct: 87 The diathesis-stress model has been largely supported in numerous studies that have attempted to diagnose the source of a multitude of disorders. This model suggests that our biological predispositions (the diathesis) and our social and mental environments (the stress) play an interactive role in the development of many disorder symptoms. When commenting on this model, many researchers have stressed that it implies that our inherent biology may not determine the development of a disorder, but it could explain why someone has a much greater chance of developing a disorder versus another person. 43. Cameron has caused people to be nicer to him, not because of anything that he has done, but merely because of what he looks like. Psychologists call this A. construction. B. evocation. C. generativity. D. stagnation. ANSWER: B % Correct: 81 This is the definition of evocation. When a person has an impact on his/her environment, merely due to what he/she looks like or how he/she is identified, we call this effect evocation. A bevvy of recent research has suggested that evocation is a much larger player than we had originally though in the development of many of our personality characteristics, likes and dislikes, and developed skills. 44. The researcher credited with a large portion of the early birth order research in the field was A. Frank Sulloway. B. Simund Freud. C. Jean Piaget. D. Alfred Adler. ANSWER: A % Correct: 57 Frank Sulloway, a Berkeley faculty member for years, was the first researcher to study the topic of birth order—at least in a great amount of detail. Most of his research revolved around separating out characteristics between the different positions in the family line. Others in the field have opened the birth order topic up and have begun looking at family size and its impact on individuals. 45. Though it might not always be the most effective psychotherapy for all disorders, ___________ has shown to be one of the most effective psychotherapeutic approaches for most disorders. A. behavioral therapy B. the humanistic approach C. cognitive-behavioral therapy D. psychoanalysis ANSWER: C % Correct: 90 Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been labelled as the “gold-standard” by most researchers in clinical psychology because of its consistent level of effectiveness across a wide array of mental disorders. With that being said, CBT isn’t necessarily the perfect cure for all disorders, nor is it even the best form of treatment for several disorders. It also often takes time for CBT to show positive effects. When paired with medication, CBT has shown to be even more effective, and faster acting for several disorders. 46. The manual for diagnosing mental illness is abbreviated: A. WAIS. B. DSM. C. WCST. D. fMRI. ANSWER: B % Correct: 95 The “Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders” (DSM) is the standard manual used in the United States to diagnose mental illnesses since the 1950’s. It is a manual that is constantly being updated and maintained by the American Psychological Association (APA). Many other countries use the “International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) to diagnose disorders. 47. Which of the following is a difficulty for therapists using the current manual used for the diagnosis of mental disorders? A. It does not provide diagnoses for mild problems. B. Many people don’t fit neatly into one category. C. It does not distinguish among a large enough number of categories. D. It requires therapists to conduct long and expensive lab tests. ANSWER: B % Correct: 97 Though answers A and C have historically been issues with the DSM, they no longer are considered problems with the current version of the DSM. Answer D has never been true of the DSM. Answer B is correct. Even though we celebrate the DSM, many psychologists argue that it requires clinicians to “force square pegs into round holes” occasionally when diagnosing individuals that seek therapy. This problem stems not from poorly designed definitions, but the wide range of abnormal behaviors/thoughts that people seeking treatment can display. 48. Suppose astronauts are on a flight to another planet. The temperature and lighting of the spacecraft remain constant at all times. When will the astronauts become sleepy? A. briefly, every hour or two B. on an irregular, unpredictable basis C. about once every 24-25 hours D. about once every 48-72 hours ANSWER: C % Correct: 87 This odd question related to the topic of circadian rhythms. Though most of our circadian rhythms are constantly being reset by the sun (or technically the revolution of the earth around its axis), when people aren’t exposed to this cycle, we still display a circadian rhythm. The famous “cave study” run in France a number of decades ago, as well as several recent studies on the topic, suggest that our natural circadian rhythms last somewhere between 24 and 25 hours. 49. According to Sigmund Freud, what do dreams reveal about a person? A. patterns of brain activity B. future activities and outcomes C. capacity of working memory D. unconscious thoughts and motivations ANSWER: D % Correct: 100 Apparently this question was a bit too easy. Though very little research has supported Freud’s notion, he did propose that our dreams were windows into our unconscious—revealing our intimate thoughts and desires. He attempted to use this concept in his therapeutic attempts. Several clinicians today that are trained in the psychoanalytic technique might occasionally dabble in dream interpretation on occasion. 50. Which kind of psychotherapy gives people the least direction and advice, simply providing sympathy, acceptance, and encouragement for people to solve their own problems? A. person-centered therapy B. behavior therapy C. psychoanalysis D. rational-emotive therapy ANSWER: A % Correct: 81 Though met with hostility by some and excitement by others, humanistic therapy is a fairly complex approach to therapy with a straightforward goal. In the humanistic approach—sometimes called “client centered therapy”—the therapist is merely a facilitator. She/he is merely there to create a welcoming environment that also allows the person to explore themselves, the issues that they want to discuss, and the means that they feel will best allow them to overcome their issues. It’s based on the assumption that the client is often the best resource for determining what’s wrong with them and how to help them overcome their problems. Final Exam 1. The mind-brain (or mind-body) problem refers to the question: A. Which is more important in controlling behavior, the mind or the brain? B. How is the mind related to the brain and does one control the other? C. What causes the mind to undergo "out-of-body" experiences? D. Which part of the mind controls the body? ANSWER: B % Correct: 87 Though some theorists attempting to address the topics of the mind and body might focus on one direction of this relationship, the true mind-body problem that philosophers and psychologists have attempted to tackle for centuries relates to the interactive nature of the relationship between the two. In other words, the mind-body problem revolves around the question about whether or not these two entities are distinct, and if not, determining which is in charge of the other. 2. If you become skillful at basketball because your friends encourage you to play and you have practiced a lot, your behavior is influenced primarily by __________. If you are good at basketball mainly because you are very tall, as have been all of the members of your family for generations, your behavior is influenced primarily by __________. A. nature...nurture B. nurture...nature C. nature...nature D. nurture...nurture ANSWER: B % Correct: 96 This question relates to the nature/nurture debate. In this debate, the term nature is used for the presence of a biological predisposition for a specific ability/physical characteristic/trait. Nature, the other component to this debate, is the term used to describe the abilities/physical characteristics/traits that result from experiences in the environment—usually social interactions. 3. Wilhelm Wundt was one of the first people to demonstrate that A. talking with people can help relieve their psychological disorders. B. it is possible to measure psychological processes scientifically. C. mental processes depend on the activity of the brain. D. behavior is controlled by both a conscious mind and an unconscious mind. ANSWER: B % Correct: 80 Wundt is credited by historians for creating the very first psychological lab in Leipzig, Germany in the late 1800’s. His research focused on the basic sensory and perceptual processes that are required in our daily lives. Some of the topics that his lab examined included sound perception, visual interpretations of motion, and reaction times to various stimuli. 4. Of the various parts of a neuron, the part that receives information from other neurons is the _____ and the part that sends messages to other cells is the ______. A. dendrites... axon B. axon... cell body C. cell body... dendrites D. axon... dendrites ANSWER: A % Correct: 84 This was a definition based question on the parts of a neuron. The receiving portions of every neuron are called dendrites. Though some are activated through atypical means, most are connected to other neurons at synapses so they can be activated when they detect the presence of neurotransmitters. The parts of the neuron that reach out to other clusters of cells are called axons. Technically, it is the terminal buttons that connect to the dendrites of adjacent cells, but these terminal buttons extend from the axon of the neuron. 5. According to Piaget, a child’s intellectual growth occurs through A. conservation and object permanence. B. classical conditioning and operant conditioning. C. habituation and dishabituation. D. assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. ANSWER: D % Correct: 79 Three of the big terms that explained Piaget’s theory of cognitive development were assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. In his theory, Piaget contended that children are constantly attempting to understand the world around them, hoping that the world they expect to experience aligns with the world that they are actually experiencing. When this occurs, Piaget said that children enter a state of mind called equilibrium. When they don’t align, Piaget contended that children enter a state of mind called disequilibrium. When disequilibrium occurs, children can either assimilate the contradictory information, and in doing so, retain their expectations of the world. They can also accommodate to the information and adjust their schemas to match the new information. This accommodation was said to be the motivating force behind cognitive development, and when done correctly, it was said to create equilibration—a return to equilibrium. 6. What do we call the outer surface of the forebrain? A. cerebral cortex B. cerebellum C. reticular formation D. hypothalamus ANSWER: A % Correct: 81 This was a definition based term. Though there are several terms for this structure—some even call it “the brain”—the only term listed above that matches this topic is the cerebral cortex. The other structures are either sub-cortical structures or portions of the hindbrain. 7. Which lobe of the cerebral cortex includes the motor cortex, which controls fine movements? A. frontal B. temporal C. occipital D. parietal ANSWER: A % Correct: 75 For the vast majority of the population, the primary motor cortex and other portions of our motor system are located in the back of the frontal lobe. Other parts of the frontal lobe play a role in several other higher cognitive functions. Interestingly, the primary somatosensory cortex, a system closely linked to the primary motor cortex, is found in the parietal lobe. 8. What does the right hemisphere of the brain do, in most people? A. It controls language. B. It controls hunger and thirst. C. It feels the right half of the body and controls muscles on the right side. D. It feels the left half of the body and controls muscles on the left side. ANSWER: D % Correct: 96 Though this is not entirely true for all individuals—a noticeable percentage of left-handed individuals and a VERY small number of ambidextrous right-handed individuals—the right hemisphere of the brain is linked to motor and sensory functions of the left side of the body. Language is controlled by the left hemisphere of the brain—again, for all but a very select few individuals. Hunger and thirst are not necessarily controlled solely by either hemisphere. In fact, they are primarily linked to the lower cortical regions that don’t differentiate between the two hemispheres very clearly. 9. After split-brain surgery, what can a person NO LONGER do? A. Describe in words what he/she feels with the left hand B. Perceive the speed and direction of a moving object C. Perceive that an object seen is the same thing as an object heard or felt D. Move the left and right hands at the same time ANSWER: A % Correct: 79 Split-brain surgery prevents communication between the two hemispheres of the brain. Since or language is controlled by the left hemisphere of the brain and our sense of touch in the left hand is controlled by the right hemisphere of the brain, unless the person holding something in their left hand takes a peek at that item and sees it in their right visual field, they will have absolutely no ability to verbally identify what they are holding, even if they are very familiar with the item. 10. How does functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measure brain activity? A. by causing detectable vibrations in various brain areas B. by detecting radiation emitted by radioactive chemicals in various brain areas C. by detecting how much oxygen various brain areas have removed from the blood D. by directly recording the electrical activity of individual neurons ANSWER: C % Correct: 28 The fMRI is considered a breakthrough in imaging approaches to neuroscience. It allows us to study neural activity by detecting the reactions of blood cells to the stimulation provided by magnetic coils that spin around the head. In particular, the fMRI detects activity of different blood cells that are transitioning from being oxygenated to deoxygenated—a process that occurs when these blood cells are providing energy to neurons that recently were active. 11. What do children in Piaget's preoperational stage of development lack? A. language B. schemas C. the concept of conservation D. the concept of object permanence ANSWER: C % Correct: 69 Children in Piaget’s pre-operational stage of development are between the ages of 2 and 7. At this time, these children are already well on their way to understanding language and have a firm grasp of object permanence. A schema is a generic term for a concept of how something works. Children in the preoperational stage have several schemas that have been formed. The one thing that they have not mastered—in fact, Piaget contended that it was what separated them from children in the concrete operational stage of development—is the concept of conservation. 12. When adopted children strongly resemble their biological mothers, the likely interpretation is _____ heritability, but another possible explanation is _____. A. high... prenatal environment B. high... mutation C. low... prenatal environment D. low... mutation ANSWER: C % Correct: 81 This question relates to the concept of heritability. If adopted children resemble their biological mothers, it almost always infers that biology played a very large role in the determination of whatever characteristic is being examined. This would mean that the heritability of that characteristic is “high”. HOWEVER, there are some that contend that we shouldn’t automatically assume that genes were the sole cause of the development of an inherited characteristic since children that are not raised by their biological mothers still spent approximately 9 months inside the womb of these mothers. This would mean that they are actually sharing some environmental experiences during that time. We call this environment, the prenatal environment. 13. If every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected for a sample, it is a/an __________ sample. A. representative B. random C. independent D. stratified ANSWER: B % Correct: 95 This question related to terminology linked to the process of conducting research. In particular, it related to the topic of sampling. When there are no specific characteristics being used by researchers to recruit participants, and all subjects that the researcher is intending the results of the study to apply to have an equal chance of being recruited, we call this form of sampling random sampling. Though this type of sampling is ideal, the requirements for this form of sampling are rarely 100% met when people conduct their studies. Instead, they often run some form of convenient, pseudo-random sampling. 14. According to one study, the more hours students spend watching television, the lower their grades in school. What kind of correlation does this study illustrate? A. an illusory correlation. B. a positive correlation. C. a zero correlation. D. a negative correlation. ANSWER: D % Correct: 93 If you are examining the relationship between two variables and you find that as one variable goes up in a person, the other variable goes down in that person, you are looking at what is called a negative correlation. Positive correlations indicate that as one variable goes up, the other variable also goes up. Zero correlations indicate that you really can’t guess where a second variable will go with information about the first variable. 15. Dr. Rodentz deprives rats of food for different lengths of time and then records how long each rat takes to reach food at the end of a maze. The length of food deprivation is the A. independent variable. B. dependent variable. C. hypothesis. D. correlation. ANSWER: A % Correct: 85 There are usually two variables of concern in experimental studies: the independent and dependent variables. The dependent variable is the variable that you believe is being impacted by the other variable that is being manipulated. The variable being manipulated—which in the example is the length of food deprivation—is called the independent variable. These names can be a little confusing at times, but they’ve been used in research for centuries to explain the nature of the relationship between variables. 16. A researcher presents a noise followed by a puff of air to the eyes. The air puff elicits a blink of the eyes, and after a few pairings the noise does also. In this procedure, the conditioned stimulus is the __________ and the conditioned response is __________. A. noise...air puff B. air puff...noise C. air puff...eye blink D. noise...eye blink ANSWER: D % Correct: 91 This question relates to the concept of classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, an organism is learning to pair a stimulus that naturally produces an automatic response with a stimulus that originally produces no response at all. We call the stimulus that naturally produces a response an unconditioned stimulus. We call the response to this unconditioned stimulus the unconditioned response. We call the stimulus that eventually is paired with the unconditioned stimulus the conditioned stimulus. We call the eventual response to this conditioned stimulus once learning has occurred the conditioned response. This would mean that in this example, the noise is the conditioned stimulus and the blink to the noise is the conditioned response. 17. How does an investigator produce extinction in classical conditioning? A. Punish all responses. B. Present the CS without the UCS. C. Present the UCS without the UCR. D. Present the UCS without the CS. ANSWER: B % Correct: 75 The term extinction is used in classical conditioning when describing the mental severing of the conditioned stimulus from the unconditioned stimulus. To get this to occur, the learner must realize that the conditioned stimulus is no longer indicating that the unconditioned stimulus will follow, one would have to present the conditioned stimulus without presenting the unconditioned stimulus—usually a number of times. 18. Classical conditioning applies primarily to __________ responses; operant conditioning applies primarily to __________ responses. A. visceral...reflexive B. skeletal...visceral C. skeletal...reflexive D. visceral...skeletal ANSWER: D % Correct: 54 Though admittedly a difficult question, answer D was correct. We often refer to classical conditioning as visceral or reflexive learning. We describe operant conditioning as a means of learning different appropriate behaviors in different environments. The only term that would relate to this type of learning would be skeletal. 19. What do positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement have in common with each other? A. They both depend on the presentation of a desirable stimulus. B. They both depend on the presentation of an undesirable stimulus. C. They both weaken a behavior. D. They both strengthen a behavior. ANSWER: D % Correct: 86 Though they sound extremely different—and they operate on different mechanisms—both positive and negative reinforcement attempt to achieve the same end goal, to get an organism to increase the frequency of a behavior. We call the process of increasing the frequency of a behavior “strengthening”. 20. Your boss provides free coffee and donuts daily at 10:30 am. Showing up at the right time and place is reinforced on which schedule? A. variable ratio B. fixed ratio C. fixed interval D. variable interval ANSWER: C % Correct: 93 The behavior being reinforced in this example is “showing up”. To increase the frequency of this behavior, the boss is rewarding this behavior, but only after a set amount of time has passed. This particular schedule of reinforcement, where a behavior is being reinforced only after a set period of time, is called a fixed interval schedule. For the answer to this question to be a ratio schedule, a certain number of responses—either a set number or a variable number—would have to occur before reinforcement is provided. 21. What happens during vicarious reinforcement? A. You experience an event previously associated with an unconditioned reinforcer. B. You experience an event that has both reinforcing and punishing properties. C. You watch someone else do something and receive reinforcement. D. You receive a reinforcement but fail to pay attention to it. ANSWER: C % Correct: 85 Vicarious reinforcement is the term used to describe when the process of operant conditioning occurs simply through the act of observation instead of the typical personal experience that occurs with conditioning. The only answer above that meets that definition is answer C. Every other answer above involves the learner being conditioned directly. 22. When you see something, A. energy comes from the object into your eyes. B. energy goes out of your eyes to the object. C. energy goes both from the object and from your eyes. D. no energy passes in either direction. ANSWER: A % Correct: 76 The correct answer to this is A. The energy referred to in this question is electromagnetic energy. This energy comes from a light source. It hits and then bounces off different objects (at different frequencies and amplitudes). What you “see” is the light that bounces off of those objects and lands onto the back of your eyes. Your eyes are not producing any energy in this process of vision. 23. Which of the following is true for the periphery of the retina? A. Activity from rods makes it possible to have great sensitivity to faint light. B. Cones are present in abundance and rods are almost absent. C. Cones and rods are present in equal numbers. D. Perception of movement is much less than in the fovea. ANSWER: A % Correct: 61 The periphery of your retina—the term used for the back of your eye—contains a large number of rods and a very, very small number of cones. Cones are located primarily in area in the center of the retina called the fovea. They are used for perception of fine detail and color. Rods are used for perception of movement and can be used to detect visual information in faint light. The only answer above that reflects this information is answer A. 24. Which aspect of vision does the opponent-process theory explain better than the trichromatic theory? A. optical illusions B. negative afterimages C. depth perception D. motion perception ANSWER: B % Correct: 86 The opponent process theory and trichromatic theory of color vision are both considered vital theories to explain how we perceive color in our environment. Though the trichromatic theory can explain a lot of different aspects of our ability to perceive color, it cannot explain the phenomenon of negative afterimages. Negative afterimages occur when we look at an object for a long time, then look at something like a white wall and somehow see an after-image of the object that we were looking at, but in a different color. The opponent process theory—which surmises that we see color by detecting the balance of three contrasting color pairs (red/green, blue/yellow, light/dark) in the objects that we observe—CAN explain this effect. 25. Sound waves are carried through the ear by three tiny bones to a fluid-filled, snail-shaped structure called the A. malleus. B. incus. C. cochlea. D. auditory cortex. ANSWER: C % Correct: 97 This was a definition based question. The structure that is being described above is called the cochlea. The cochlea houses the mechanisms that allow us to convert the cascade of mechanical reactions that occur in the ear as a result of the changes in air pressure that we call sound into a cascade of neural impulses. 26. In signal-detection theory, we would like to increase the number of "hits"—that is correct identifications of a stimulus that is present. The problem is that if we shift the criterion to increase the number of hits, we probably also increase the number of A. misses. B. correct rejections. C. false alarms. D. complaints. ANSWER: C % Correct: 86 In signal detection theory, a “hit” is when someone detects the presence of a stimulus when it is actually present. To increase the frequency of the “hits” in a test, you would have to entice someone to identify the presence of a stimulus even when it is really difficult to detect. Unfortunately, when this is done, this incentive system also inevitably increase the chances that someone detects a stimulus when it is not there. We call this event a “false alarm”. 27. What group of psychologists are most closely associated with the slogan "The whole is different from the sum of its parts"? A. Psychoanalysts B. Behaviorists C. Structuralists D. Gestalt Psychologists ANSWER: D % Correct: 69 This slogan was the mantra for many psychologists that took on the name Gestaltists. Psychologists that followed this approach were interested in studying human experiences—most often, the experience of perception. Their main aim was to show that our mind’s expectations, along with the stimuli in our environment, both played a role in the world that we perceived around us. In other words, what we see, hear, taste, etc. is more than just the basic properties of the things in our environment. Instead, it is a collection of expectations, rules of the mind, and properties of our environment that determine our experiences with the stimuli in our world. 28. The moon appears larger at the horizon than when straight above because of A. an optical illusion. B. bending of light rays as they pass through the atmosphere. C. differences in actual distance between the observer and the moon. D. fatigue of neck muscles when an observer looks up. ANSWER: A % Correct: 73 Though many have argued that the moon illusion involves bending light or atmosphere concentration, research has conclusively shown that it is merely an optical illusion caused by the visual cues presented to a person. To verify this, you can actually run your own test. Place a piece of paper a set distance away from you and trace the moon when it is just above the horizon. Then wait until it is higher in the sky. Though it might look smaller, if you place that same piece of paper the same distance away from you, you’ll find the moon that is high in the sky is the same size as the moon when it was on the horizon. 29. What was Hermann Ebbinghaus’s contribution to the study of memory? A. He was the first to do experiments to measure memory. B. He located the brain areas most important for memory. C. He was the first to distinguish between different types of memory. D. He found ways to uncover hidden or lost memories. ANSWER: A % Correct: 63 Ebbinghaus made many contributions to the world of memory research. His greatest contribution was to show us a means of measuring the concept of memory in a scientific manner. Before him, we only had theories and analogies to explain how memory worked—with many theorists arguing that we could never scientifically study this mental process because of its complexity. Though Ebbinghaus’s research might have been limited, his use of nonsense syllables and his own mind’s capacity to store them in a variety of different settings proved that we could scientifically study memory and it started us down the winding path of studying memory that we continue to travel along today. 30. An experimenter reads a series of letters, such as TGWNR, and asks college students to recall it 20 seconds later. They are likely to forget the letters if they A. try to form a visual image of the letters. B. blink their eyes frequently during the 20 seconds. C. fail to rehearse the letters during the 20 seconds. D. store the letters in a way that makes use of chunking. ANSWER: C % Correct: 87 This question relates to the topic of short-term memory. As was mentioned in the book and in the lectures, our short-term memory is very limited. In fact, if we don’t rehearse or pay special attention to information when it is presented to us, most of that information will be lost within 20 second. 31. You are given a list of grocery items to remember to purchase on your trip to the store. These items are; apples, bread, celery, lettuce, grapes, and onions. According to the recency effect, what item are you most likely to remember? A. apples B. lettuce C. onions D. whichever food you ate most recently ANSWER: C % Correct: 95 The recency effect is an effect examined in the field of memory. It suggests that information presented at the end of lists, stories, videos, etc. is much more likely to be retained than information presented within the middle of these items. Along with the primacy effect, the recency effect is considered a part of the serial position (sometimes called serial order) effect. 32. You memorize a list of paired associates including "RUBBER-BAND." Later someone asks what word on the list refers to music, and you don’t think of BAND. Why not? A. serial-order effect B. von Restorff effect C. encoding specificity principle D. depth-of-processing principle ANSWER: C % Correct: 85 This is an example of the encoding specificity principle. This principle suggests that the way you encode information can either enhance or diminish your ability to recall that information later. Since in the example, the term rubber-band uses the word band to indicate a circular shape that holds things together, it would be easier to pull up or recall the word band in a similar context— like “what is the thing that you can wear around your head to prevent sweat from getting into your eyes?” In the example from the question, since this version of band is in a different context, it actually makes it more difficult to think of the word band—at least for a little while. 33. Participants viewed a video. Then someone asked misleading questions, such as "Did you see children get on the school bus?" (when there was no bus). What was the conclusion of this study? A. Misleading questions cause many people to develop inaccurate memories. B. False information causes people immediately to distrust the experimenter. C. Memory is either complete and accurate, or forgotten. D. It takes as long to reconstruct a memory as it takes to report it. ANSWER: A % Correct: 97 This is an example of the reconstruction effect—to an extent. It describes a scenario similar to the one that Elizabeth Loftus used in her research on this topic. In it, Loftus phrased questions to observers of an event in different ways. She then showed that the phrasing of the questions impacted the details that a person recalled. Her work showed that answer A is true. 34. According to the conceptual network approach, which of the following questions should most people answer most rapidly? A. Do fashion models draw pictures? B. Do fashion models drive cars? C. Do fashion models sometimes get sick? D. Do fashion models wear dresses? ANSWER: D % Correct: 97 The conceptual network approach to thinking and problem solving suggests that our minds create fast access links between concepts that we readily pair together. That means that even if two responses are equally likely, or even if one response is more likely than another, if our mind has learned to connect two ideas together automatically, we’ll be able to answer questions that relate to those links a little faster than those that don’t relate to those links—regardless of the likelihood or accuracy of the questions. 35. In decision making, considering every possibility to find the best decision is called A. maximizing. B. availability heuristic. C. representative heuristic. D. satisficing. ANSWER: A % Correct: 92 This is the definition of a maximizing approach to a problem. It is considered a painstaking and long approach, and many report satisficers not ever really happy with their decision, but it does inevitably lead to the “best” decision out of all of the possible options that were/are possible. 36. Under which circumstances are people most likely to take a gamble? A. in order to gain something of value B. in order to avoid losing something C. when the possible wins and losses are great D. under all circumstances equally ANSWER: B % Correct: 67 This question related to the thinking and problem solving topics discussed in the presentations and text. Though there are definitely individual differences between people and their propensity to gamble, research has shown that we can shift the willingness of many people to gamble if a situation is presented as a way to avoid loss instead a way to gain something. In other words, we’re willing to risk the possibility of a large loss in order to avoid a certain small loss, while we’re less likely to risk a larger gain as an alternative to taking a small gain. 37. Suppose people hear an ambiguous sound that is half-way between dent and tent. What determines what they hear? A. A person hears either dent or tent, randomly. B. A person may hear dent or tent, influenced by the preceding context only. C. A person may hear dent or tent, influenced by preceding context and the next two or three words. D. A person may hear dent or tent, influenced by the entire sentence, no matter how long it is. ANSWER: C % Correct: 77 This question relates to the topic of language. In this topic, we discussed how language is often extremely ambiguous, even with sound ambiguity being put aside. In order for us to comprehend the language that others are using, we must often utilize the context around the conversation in order to comprehend what is being said. For a clear example, it’s what helps us avoid a very unfortunate scene when we invite grandma over for lunch. 38. What is the mean IQ score on the Stanford-Binet test? A. 10 B. 15 C. 100 D. It varies depending on a child’s age. ANSWER: C % Correct: 86 The Standford-Binet test, like many of our traditional IQ tests, has a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of 15. These numbers are ensured by the standardization of these tests. In other words, an average performance of a person in an age group—regardless of what that performance may be—is automatically given a score of 100. 39. Schachter and Singer's theory and the James-Lange theory agree on which point? A. Emotional experiences differ from one culture to another. B. Each type of emotion is associated with a specific type of autonomic activity. C. We have six basic types of emotion. D. Anything that blocks autonomic arousal decreases the intensity of emotions. ANSWER: D % Correct: 28 This was apparently a difficult question. Though the Schachter/Singer and James/Lange disagreed about the process through which our emotions are evoked and how many things we need in order to determine the emotions that we are feeling, both groups agreed that the arousal level of the individual is paramount in determining the emotion and intensity of that emotion. 40. Beginning in early childhood, boys and girls differ on average in what? A. their ability to do mathematics B. their ability to learn to play chess C. their interests, such as toy preferences D. their ability to learn and remember ANSWER: C % Correct: 81 Though much is made of the intellectual differences between boys and girls, research has rarely found many differences between the two genders. Instead, the only conclusive findings about gender differences have revolved around gender roles and gender typing. We have consistently seen a separation between the play, toy preference, and interaction styles of boys and girls near age 2. Many researchers believe that these differences are primarily the result of the influence that the social world has on these young children. 41. Parents who set firm rules for their children, without explaining why those rules are good, and who tend to be cold and distant to their children, are known as __________ parents. A. indifferent B. authoritarian C. insubstantiated D. complex ANSWER: B % Correct: 95 This is a definition based questions. Indeed, parents who meet the criteria above have been defined as “authoritarian parents”. Though considerable research has focused on the pitfalls of this parenting style, it has moments that it works and moments that create challenges. Admittedly, the long-term challenges from this form of parenting might be more frequent with this parenting style than with others. 42. An experimenter pays you $1 to tell someone else that a particular monotonous, boring task was really interesting. This procedure will probably generate A. an attributional bias. B. cognitive dissonance. C. bystander apathy. D. groupthink. ANSWER: B % Correct: 62 Since most of us would agree with a request like this—as was discovered by Leon Festinger in his infamous “Cog Turning Task”—this agreement would create an uncomfortable state of mind because our actions are not matching up with our behaviors. We call this state of mind “cognitive dissonance”. Research on the topic has often shown that we can sometimes be enticed to change our state of minds when we have no ability to alter or justify our unmatched actions. This is done in order to reduce this cognitive dissonance that forms. 43. According to Asch's studies of conformity A. the tendency to conform to a group of three is as large as it is with larger groups. B. it is just as easy to resist conforming when you are a minority of one as when you have an ally. C. people who conformed always claimed that their perceptions had been distorted. D. people do not conform on questions where there is an objective right and wrong. ANSWER: A % Correct: 84 Solomon Asch was one of the first social psychologists to challenge the notion that conformity only came about when we didn’t know what to do in a situation. In his famous line study, he showed that he could get participants to conform to a group that was obviously wrong. His later research focused on the necessary characteristics of that group in order to achieve conformity. One of the things that he found in this research was his “magic number 3”. This term is explained in answer A. 44. What evidence (if it were reported) would indicate an important role of the “shared environment” in personality development? A. a strong correlation between parents and their adopted children B. a strong correlation between parents and their biological children C. a weak correlation between parents and their adopted children D. a weak correlation between parents and their biological children ANSWER: A % Correct: 83 In the context of developmental psychology research, “shared environments” refer to environments that siblings experience with their family members while growing up—regardless of their amount of genetic overlap. It is one of the big “nurture” components in the nature/nurture debate. If children shared a strong link in their personality with their parents, we would have to determine if the correlation came from the genetic and/or environmental overlap that the children and parents shared. To control for the genetic overlap, one could look at adopted children. If an adopted child showed a strong overlap in their personality with their parents, then this indicated that nurture—and in particular, the shared environment—was a key element to the formation of that personality characteristics. 45. Which of the following is one of the "big five" personality traits? A. sense of humor B. conscientiousness C. sexiness D. authoritarianism ANSWER: B % Correct: 90 The “Big Five” are as follows: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. 46. Frank’s ability to trace a star through a mirror better than his peers, despite not having remembering having learned to do this, indicates that Frank might be displaying __________ of having done this task. A. implicit memory B. explicit memory C. exceptional learning D. alternate learning ANSWER: A % Correct: 93 The ability to show learning through kinesthetic ability is a part of implicit memory. The fact that Frank, in this example, does not remember having learned this, indicates that he is not displaying what would be called explicit memory. For most people, teasing apart implicit and explicit memories can be difficult, but examples like this and other similar cases indicate that these two types of memory are indeed distinct. 47. What does the “biopsychosocial model” of abnormal behavior mean? A. Each disorder depends on either biological, psychological, or social problems. B. Each disorder results from a combination of biological, psychological, and social problems. C. Someone who has a biological disorder can overcome it by psychological and social interventions. D. Biological interventions can overcome psychological or social problems. ANSWER: B % Correct: 93 The biopsychosocial model of abnormal behavior started to replace the biomedical model of abnormal behavior about a century ago. It suggested that instead of mental disorders and abnormal behavior being solely the result of biological issues, these things could stem from a combination of social, mental, and biological factors. A great deal of research has shown support for this model in attempting to explain the source of a wide variety of different abnormal behaviors and mental disorders. 48. How does DSM-IV differ from DSM-5? A. DSM-5 is more difficult. B. DSM-5 is longer. C. DSM-5 is more recent. D. DSM-5 is for use with older people. ANSWER: C % Correct: 86 Though the DSM-5 is more than just a newer version of the DSM-IV, the only answer here that is true is answer C. That being said, there have been new mental disorders added to the DSM-5, so answer B isn’t entirely off if someone guessed that answer. However, answer B is not technically true, since the DSM-5 is not technically longer than the very last published version of the DSM-IV. 49. Therapists who are dissatisfied with the DSM approach have suggested what alternative? A. Abandon all diagnoses except for neurosis and psychosis. B. Wait for the results of lab tests before giving anyone a diagnosis. C. Let each therapist use his or her own criteria for each diagnosis. D. Rate people along several dimensions instead of giving them labels. ANSWER: D % Correct: 89 There have been several complaints lodged about the DSM over the years, but the only answer above that relates to those complaints is answer D. Many psychologists have been frustrated with the labelling issues that the diagnosis of a disorder will cause for a person. Moreover, they have grown frustrated with the lumping together of individuals that are diagnosed with a disorder, even if their symptoms, causes, and impacts of the disorder might differ significantly. The best way to circumvent these issues is by attempting to revise the DSM by following the suggestion in answer D. 50. Rebecca’s early childhood exposure to a mother that complained a lot would be considered the ___________ of the diathesis-stress model of mental health. A. diathesis B. stress C. neither diathesis nor stress D. both diathesis and stress ANSWER: B % Correct: 81 Though a mother can be both a diathesis (biological factor) and stress (social factor) for the formation of an abnormal behavior or mental disorder, the complaining of the mother falls under the stress category. If the answer had also alluded to the biological predisposition that the mother passed down to the daughter, answer D would have been correct.