SBI3U Grade 11 University Biology Exam

SBI3U Grade 11 University Biology Exam Biological Systems > Organ Systems > Tissue Systems > Cells Respiratory system: responsible for gas exchange between the organism and the environment Circulatory System: responsible for circulating nutrients and materials to all cells of the organism Digestive System: responsible for breaking down food into smaller, absorbable molecules Respiratory System: Requirements: Large surface area, moist surfaces Methods: Diffusion, Skin, Lungs Human System: (in the order) Nasal Cavity: Structure lined with mucus and moist and capillaries to clean and warm air Oral Cavity: similar to nasal cavity but for the mouth Pharynx: Intersection between the trachea and the mouth Epiglottis: Flap that controls the incoming food into the digestive system, and air into the trachea Larynx: Box with chords, which vibrate to produce sounds Trachea: cartilage ring supported tubes that act as the windpipe for air Bronchi: Splits the air canal into 2 pathways Bronchioles: network of tubes within the lung that further splits air into finer tubes (mucus) Alveoli: Sacks in the lung that makes up the respiratory surface Breathing: Diaphragm Muscle: contracts and makes room for space in the thoracic cavity Intercostal Muscles: contracts to expand the rib cage to increase thoracic cavity Diffusion: Air pressure passes through the thin walls of the gas exchange surface Under 2 vessels, the air pressure attempts to achieve equilibrium on both sides As volume increases, the pressure decreases, As volume decreases, the pressure increases. Inhalation/Inspiration: the expansion of the thoracic cavity during inhalation will rush air in. Exhalation/Expiration: contraction of the thoracic cavity will force air out, expiration External Respiration: Outside environment to the lungs Internal Respiration: Lung to the blood Cellular Respiration: Blood to the cells Lung Capacity: the amount of air your lungs can hold in during normal breathing rates Inspiration Reserve Volume: the additional volume of air that can be taken in beyond regular tidal rates Expiration Reserve Volume: the additional volume of air that can be exhaled beyond regular tidal rates Residue Volume: amount of air that remains in your system after full expiration, never leaves system Vital Capacity: Total amount of gas in and out Tidal Capacity: Normal amount of air circulating in or out. Cardiovascular System Functions: removes waste, transports oxygen, temperature, disease fighting, transports nutrients Vessels Arteries: thick walls, high pressure, Takes Oxygenated blood away Veins: medium thickness, one way valves, lowest pressure, Takes deoxygenated blood to heart Capillaries: smallest vessels, gas exchange Sphincter: muscle that controls blood flow on a capillary bed Blood Red Blood Cells: contains hemoglobin with magnesium center to attract and hold oxygen White Blood Cells: fights off foreign agents Platelets: break open to create an ingredient that allows blood to clot together Plasma: makes blood water and fluid (not a solid component) Coronary Circulation: within the heart Pulmonary Circulation: heart and lung Systemic Circulation: around the body Heart: (in order) Superior/Inferior Vena Cava: receives blood into the heart (vein) Right Atria: receives blood Tricuspid Valve: (right) Atrioventricular valve that leads into ventricles Right Ventricle: contracts to force blood to next lung Pulmonary Semilunar Valve: forces blood into the pulmonary veins Pulmonary Arteries: takes deoxygenated blood away from heart Pulmonary Veins: takes oxygenated blood back to the heart Left Atrium: stores blood as they return Bicuspid Valve: moves blood into the left atrium Left Ventricle: contracts to move blood up the aortic semilunar valve Aortic Semilunar valve: moves blood up to the Aorta Aorta: (artery) moves the oxygenated away Systolic Pressure: pressure during contraction Diastole Pressure: Pressure during relaxation (Blood reflows) SA Node: receives signals from the heart Internodal Pathway: takes signals to AV node AV Node: Delays to ensure the atrium is empty Bundle of HIS: Muscle tissue Purkinje Fibers: Actual compression is triggered Digestive System Mouth: grinds food into small bits + saliva Molar/Pre Molar teeth: grinds food Canines: Tears and rips food Incisor: cuts food Tongue: builds a ball of food and moves food around Uvula: prevents food from entering the pharynx when we swallow Esophagus: tub lubricated with mucin Stomach: inner folds called rugae to increase surface area and to have acids for digestion Gastric Glands: releases Gastric Juices of pH 2 Cardiac Sphincter/ orifice: opening into the stomach Pyloric Sphincter: opening out the stomach -Makes food into chyme Small Intestine: more surface area and saliva to digest food Duodenum: first 30 cm, most folds and villi and intestinal juices. Reduces acidity of chyme Jejunum: breaks down protein and carbs Ileum: fewer villi, absorbs remaining nutrients Large Intestine: Absorbs water Caecum: end of the large intestine Appendix: loose end that hangs on the end of the large intestine Colon: main intestine (Ascending, Transverse, Descending) Rectum: canal that stores feces to the anus Mechanical Digestion: mouth, jaw, teeth: make smaller particles Chemical Digestion: acids and enzymes to digest foods Hydrolysis: insertion of a water molecule in between a chain to break it Enzymes: speeds up the cutting process -Sensitive to temperature and acids -Ions and vitamins help it out Liver: produces bile Pancreas: produces enzymes Gall Bladder: stores bile Unit 2: Genetics DNA: molecule inside nucleus that gives instructions to make proteins etc. Deoxyribose sugar Phosphate backbone Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine Base Pair : AT – Purines – 2 rings Base Pair: CG – Pyrimidines – 1 ring Gene: segment of DNA that encodes information DNA twists itself, then on histones, then histones twist to form chromatids Chromosomes: Human has 46, 23 pairs, 1 pair of sex chromosomes, 22 pairs of autosomes Homologous: same instructions, but expressed in a different way Homologs: single chromosomes that are similar but not the same Homologous Pairs: pairs of homologs after criss-cross Centromere: middle region of chromosome, attracts spindle fibers Chromosome = 2 sister chromatids held by a centromere = chromatin N = Haploid = # of unique chromosomes = human: 23 2N = Diploid = # of total chromosomes = human:46 Cell Cycle G1: growth, prepares for synthesis S: DNA duplication G2: growth and prepares to divide or rest phase Mitosis: somatic cells, daughter will be identical to parent Interphase: G1, S, G2 + condensing Prophase: Nuclear membrane breaks, migrate to poles Metaphase: lines up in a row in the equator of the cell by spindle fibers Anaphase: centromere splits apart, pulled by spindle fibers Telophase: cell squeezes inwards, nuclear membrane reforms, plant builds a cell wall Cytokinesis: cytoplasm divides. Meiosis: gamete cells, results in cells with half the number of chromosomes, sex cells Meiosis 1: separates homologous chromosomes into 2 cells + criss crossing Interphase1: chromosome duplication, not condensed, risk for mutation Prophase 1: condenses chromatid, crossing over, creating Tetrads [Genetic variation]Crossing over (Synapsis): arms of chromatids become tangled Metaphase1: homologous chromosomes align randomly in the center by spindle fibers [Genetic variation]Independent Assortment: metaphase random center alignment Anaphase1: sister chromatids split and moved to poles [Genetic variation]Nondisjunction: failure to split apart into 2 sister chromatids Telophase 1: Same as mitosis Cytokinesis1: splits into 2 Intermediate Cells, have double # of original now 46>46*2>4*23 Meiosis 2: Divides the 2 intermediate cells into haploid cells. Pulls sister chromatids Prophase: sister chromatids do not duplicate, they will split in the end. Chromatids condense Metaphase2: spindle fibers attract them to the center side by side on the equator Anaphase2: Spindle fibers pull them apart through their centers Telophase2: nuclear membrane reforms, each daughter cell has haploid chromosomes Cytokinesis2: Parent cell divides 2 intermediate cells into 4 gamete cells or spores in plants Gametes: end result of meiosis Gametogenesis: production of creating a sperm or egg Spermatogenesis: production of turning sperm gamete (spermatogonium) into a sperm cell -Male testes, spermatogonium enlarges size and becomes sperm cells -Happens all year round Oogenesis: process of making egg from an egg gamete (oogonium) -Oogonium not equally divided, has polar bodies, and primary oocyte -1 gamete survives to give nutrients to the rest -eggs are produced till meiosis 1, then frozen until fertilized, where meiosis 2 will finish it off -1 oogonium is released each month Karyotypes: shows all the chromosomes arranged from largest to smallest with centromeres lined up -Dyed with Giemsa to reveal G-branding to check the gene segments, but do not show genes Polyploidy: extra chromosome in a cell Aneuploidy: one less chromosome Mixed: translocation of parts of DNA Gregor Mendel: formulated laws that stated how heredity could be brought over Dominant Trait: a characteristic that is always expressed in an individual if at least one dominant trait allele is expressed Recessive Trait: A characteristic that is expressed when it is the only allele present Principle of Dominance: When individuals with contrasting traits are crossed, the offspring will express only the dominant trait Purebred: Organisms that share all similar traits that are homozygous Phenotype: The physical appearance of an organism Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism Homozygous: having 2 of the same alleles Heterozygous: having 2 different alleles Hybrid: the offsprings from 2 pure lines, often heterozygous. Monohybrid Crosses: a cross where 1 trait is observed Dihybrid Cross: a cross when 2 traits are observed Law of segregation: states that a trait is carried out by the presence and condition of 2 factors called alleles Law of Independent Assortment: states that the inheritance of one trait does not affect the inheritance of another trait. Each allele is passed independently of each other. True Cross: determines the genotype of the dominant trait Monohybrid Cross: crossing 1 trait at a time. -Dominant traits denoted with a capital letter, followed by recessive lower case letters -P Generation BB x bb = F1 Generation Bb Bb Bb Bb = F2 Generation BB Bb Bb bb -Mendel tested this with Peas for their distinguishable traits and enclosed sex organs Solving a Monohybrid scenario. Show the cross of 2 heterozygous guinea pigs 1)Assign alleles to phenotypes “allele for short hair is dominant” Let L stand for short hair and l stand for long hair 2)Show genotypes involved in the cross Genotypes: Ll x Ll 3)Perform the punnett square L I L LI LI I LI II *Sort and multiply each trait to another to form a pair of alleles 4)Unique Genotypes 1 LL, 2Ll, 1ll 5)Genotype Frequencies Ratio: ¼ LL, 2/4 Ll, ¼ ll 6)Phenotypes 1 Short Hair 2 Short Hair = 3 Short Hair 1 long hair 7)Phenotype frequencies 3 Short hair : 1 long hair Frequency: 75% short hair, 25% long hair Dihybrid Cross: crossing 2 trait at a time. Steps to solving 1) Write a let statement for the variables for each trait 2) Write out the genotype for each parent 3) Write out all the possible gametes through similar to distributive property. -Bbee -> B*e, B*e , b*e, b*e 4) Write out all the genotypes for the other parent 5) Use punnett squares, substitute in the possible gametes for each of the squares, then cross. Incomplete Dominance: -mixing a red flower and a white flower will result in a pink flower -Dominant trait expressed with capital letters: RR -Recessive traits marked with a subscript: R’R’ -Heterozygous Gene: R’R Co-Dominance: -Contains equal amounts of both traits and both phenotypes are expressed -Dominant Genes have superscripts: CwCw -Recessive Genes have alternate subscripts: CRCR Multiple Alleles: Blood Types: -Determines what type of blood will be recognized by different blood type antigen markings Antigens: molecule recognized by the immune system –Antibody: fights any foreign material in the body that isn’t in the antigen database O: ii A: IAi , IAIA B: IBi , IB IB AB: IA IB Sex Linked Traits: states that some traits were linked with sex -Recessive genes will always stay on X chromosome -Since males are all the same, a recessive trait linked to it won’t have a dominant trait to mask it -Females have the Y to mask it -Denoted with XX or XY with their traits denoted in a superscript Polygenic Traits: traits that are controlled by multiple genes (height, hair color) Modifier Genes: genes that control a pigment (melanin) that controls a color (eye color for example) Unit 3: Evolution Charles Darwin: Theory of natural selection & Theory of common ancestry Baron Cuvier: Theory of catastrophism: stating that a catastrophe in one area will cause animals from surrounding area to come take the space James Hutton: Theory of uniformitarianism: said that earth is very old, and that small changes add up to big changes Charles Lyell: Supported the Theory of Uniformitarianism. George Buffon: Said that species change over time, introduce common ancestry idea Carolus Linnaeus: Father of taxonomy: classifying animals based on their origins Alfred Wallace: Proposed idea of natural selection to Darwin Jean Lamarack: Theory of Acquired Traits: the way traits acquired in one’s lifetime is essentially passed onto their offsprings. Myths: -Natural selection has a purpose to increase complexity -> Natural Selection has no purpose -Individuals can evolve -> populations evolve -Evolution by natural selection produces higher humans -> evolution does not do that -Evolution proves that there is no god -> that was not the purpose of evolution -Humans are descendants from apes -> they are a common ancestry, but as with everything else –Eugenics: to use evolution to purify a race Evolution: species change over time to adapt to changing environments Mammalian Sea Creature: breath air into lungs, warm blooded, mammary glands -> evolve land to water Fossil Record: real evidence for comparing anatomy, but could be destroyed by erosion,inaccessible, or dead organism decay Whale Evolution: had pelvis bone to facilitate 4 legs, and wolf like skull > evolved from land to water Vestigial Structure: physical structures with no function > tail bone, appendix, molar teeth -suggests that in a common ancestor, it used to be used for something but is no longer useful Homologous Structures: structures with similar organization, suggesting Divergent Evolution Cladograms: shows relationships between creatures based on their anatomical features Converging Evolution: looks similar, but different internal structures (ie Bat and butterfly) Analogous Structures: evolved to have similar features, but not the same ancestor -Simply adaptations to their local environments Embryology: study of embryos; found that they’re all very similar. Molecular Evidence: amino acids have high similarities and in DNA as well DNA Sequence similarity: Humans are 97.5% identical to chimps, meant we diverged from a chimp Homologous Sequences: Cytochrome C is a sequence that’s in nearly all species, means they’re all related Vestigial Sequences: Sequences that were once used but not anymore, proves evolutionary past Protein Sequence: Analyzed to determine homology, used to detect possible homologous sequences Darwin’s Theories: 1) More individuals are born than can survive -Leads to competition, any creature that has a competitive edge will gather resources and survive 2) There are variations in traits -Characteristics that are inherited through genetics and alleles (for example, a white-colored mouse in a dark environment can't hide and will be eaten the most; over time, a darker mouse will survive. -Mutation: rare mistake in DNA copying, passed through reproduction 3) Some traits are more advantageous than others -Increases changes of survival, allows them not to be eaten -Batesian Mimicry mimicked the monarch butterfly’s looks so birds wouldn’t eat it Survival Fittest: most number of reproduction offsprings -Must live long enough and chosen by females to reproduce Sexual Selection -Females choose the most attractive males. If the females don’t choose that trait, that trait won’t get carried on and will be left out. Agents of evolutionary change: factors that shift allele frequencies in a population Gene Pool: collection of alleles in a population Allele Frequency: how common that allele is in the population (how many A vs a) 1) Mutation: changes in alleles by mutating genes, genetic drift occurs with new alleles 2) Genetic Flow: gains or reduces alleles due to immigration or migration -Large amount of alleles leave, those traits are wiped out -Or, new alleles are introduced, and entire population evolves around that 3) Non-Random mating: Sexual Selection chosen by females, males who have specific traits 4) Genetic Drift: some parts of population is lost, that allele will be lost -Bottlenecks: after disaster, most genes are killed off, leaving the remaining genes to fill up the population -Founder Effect: physical boundaries separate a large population. Whatever dominates in that gene pool will soon make up the entire population’s allele frequencies. 5) Natural Selection: Some traits are favored over another If there is no change in the allele frequency, then there are no agents of evolution. If that’s the case, there must be allele frequency change to prove that evolution has occurred Formulas: p+q=1 p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 Derives: p^2 = number of AA alleles q^2 = number of aa alleles 2pq = number of Aa alleles In context: p^2 = number of AA genotype 2pq = number of Aa genotype q^2 = number of aa genotype p = 1-q = number of A alleles q = 1-p = number of a alleles Speciation: how new species are created Branching Events: branching another species off one that already exists Darwin’s Finches: Darwin saw many birds, he thought they were all different species, but it turns out they were all finches, which have evolved over time evolved to adapt to their own environment Adaptive Radiation: when evolution of many different types of species that came from a common ancestor which adapted to local conditions Allopatric Speciation: geographical blockage, adapts to different places, and becomes 2 species Sympatric Speciation: Slight differences in population isolates itself and becomes it’s own special -Apple trees and maggot flies female sexual selection example Unit 4: Biodiversity Biodiversity Importance: water supply, prevent erosion, nutrient storage, pollution cleaning, climate stability -The higher the biodiversity, the healthier the ecosystem, and more resistance to invasive species Threats: Habitat Destruction, over exploitation, competition by invasive species, and climate change Classification: to group things in a meaningful way, for identification, for education purposes -Use of molecular evidence, anatomy and appearance, and geographical location Carolus Linnaeus: father of taxonomy, a method of grouping animals into Taxons Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species -> Kids put chocolate on father’s good shirt Binomial Nomenclature: 2 word species naming based on anatomy. Genus Name: capitalized first letter, underlined or italicized on the computer Species Name: underlined or italicized if on the computer Cell Types: Prokaryotes: larger in size -No nuclear membrane -No cellular membrane -No cytoplasm -Cell wall present and complex -Single circular chromosome arrangement -Binary Fission division -No meiosis, but DNA transfer through conjugation Eukaryotes: smaller in size -true nucleus, membrane, and nucleoli -cellular membrane -cell wall, simple -Cytoplasm and cytoplasmic streaming -Multiple linear chromosomes with histones -Mitosis cell division -Meiosis sexual reproduction Classification Archaea: unique RNA and are prokaryotes -Unicellular, asexual, nutrients through absorption, extreme conditions, anaerobes -uses inorganic molecule and light, membrane and cells chemically unique Eukarya: unique RNA and are eukaryotes Fungi: multi/unicellular, no tissues, no photosynthesis, asexual, cell walls, land, absorbed nutrients Protista: aquatic, unicellular, ingestion & photosynthesis, asexual/sexual Animalia: land/water, multicellular, no photosynthesis, ingestion, sexual but some asexual, tissues Plantae: multicellular, cell walls, photosynthesis and absorption, asexual and sexual, land/water tissues Eubacteria: unique RNA and are prokaryotes Eubacteria: unicellular, ingests and photosynthesis, asexual, membranes, land/water, anaerobe Kingdom Archaebacteria: lives in extreme conditions with limited primitive living requirements Methanogens: give off methane, byproduct of metabolism, sewage Halophiles: love salt, give off purple scum on water Thermophiles: hot temperatures, highly related to eukaryotes in genetic sequences Kingdom Eubacteria: Shapes: Cocci: spherical, Staph: cluster Bacili: rod shaped (Bacillus Anthracis) Spirilli: Spirochete or sprillium: spiral shaped (syphilis) Cell wall type Gram Positive = thick = absorbs more stain = purple Gram Negative = thin = absorbs less stain = pink Energy Source Photoautotrophs: photosynthetic bacteria Chemoautotrophs: uses inorganic materials as food Photoheterotrophic: uses light & other things to have food Chemoheterotrophic: uses inorganic materials & ingests other food for energy Eukarya Protista: unicellular, aquatic, ingestion, sexual & asexual Movement Sarcodines (Pseudopodia): movement by moving cytoplasm around Flagellates: uses whip like tail to move around Sporozoan: not motile Ciliates: uses small cilia to move Paramecium: lives in ponds and uses ciliates Amoeba: Sarcodines, engulfs food Slime Molds: fungus like, spore reproduction, mobile with cellulose cell walls Algae: green plant, photosynthesis Green Algae: fresh water, reproduce spores, flagella Diatoms: ocean algae, planktons, rigid walls, asexual/sexual Kingdom Fungi: Benefits: yeasts, beer, food, medicine, pesticides Harm: toxin, diseases, allergic reaction More similar to animals than plants, heterotrophs and uses enzymes to digest Chitin: cells found on exoskeletons Hyphae: network of file filaments, +ive and –ive bonds to make a spore Mycelium: group of hyphae Feeding Saprophytes: sprays digestive enzymes in air, killing anything in the air and absorbing it Parasites: live off other cells, draining nutrients from them without killing them Symbiotic Fungi: lives with roots of plants, supplying them with nutrients and it supplies the plants with sugars Reproduction Zygomycotes: + and – hyphae fuse together, creates a wall and waits till embryos are ready Basidiomycetes (club fungi): + and – hyphae fuses together, stores in puffballs and popps Ascomycetes: + and – hyphae fuses together to make spores in a sack, pressure builds up and it explodes, flying the spores everywhere Deuteromycetes: asexual only, source of penicillin Viruses: non-living RNA and DNA with protein, smaller than most cells and bacteria Shapes Icosahedral: 20 sided shapes Helical Shaped Mixed: Helical + Rod Rod: (rabies virus) Host/Tissue Limited Tissue Broad Range Limited range RNA vs DNA virus RNA: attach to cells and spit viral information into cell, they will attach and copy viral data until it bursts out DNA: sticks a part of the virus into a DNA gene, hiding, destroying, or corrupting that data, making it unreadable and possibly causing cancer. Reproduction Lytic: Attachment, Entry, Replication, Assembly, Lysis/Release Lysogenic: viral DNA copied within strands of normal chromosome, as normal cell replicates, the viral information follows it. If the cell’s immune sequences have been compromised, the gene will leak out and follow lytic cycle. Kingdom Animalia Backbone/no Backbone Notochord: cartilage in fetus -> spine Dorsal: spine with nerve cords that branches to body Gills: side slits in pharynx for breathing Symmetry Radical: same no matter how you cut it Asymmetrical: you know Bilateral: symmetry when cut vertically in the center Germ Layers Ectoderm: most outer layer Mesoderm: middle layer Endoderm: most inner layer First Animals Sponges: one way opening for excretion and eating, flagella, sifts nutrients form water, diffusion Jellyfish: simple nervous system, extracellular digestion, no organs or tissues, thin skin Worms: soil, one way digestion, simple excretory system Flat worms: distinctive head Segmented Worm: earth worms, each tube has it’s own set of organs Unit 5: Plants Plants have vascular tissue and different reproduction compared to protists Types of Plants: Non-Vascular Plants: No stem, leaf, or root structures, diffusion, requires moist environment Vascular Plant: Have leaves and stems, Transfers nutrients within plants, sometimes sporesGymnosperms: Specifically designed to survive winter by having specialized leaves to keep water Angiosperms: Uses flowers and fruits to carry gametophytes (seeds enclosed in them) Monocots: Angiosperms with 1 seed leaf (embryos on the underside of the leaf) Dicots: Angiosperms with 2 seed leaves Plant seed Plumule: tiny leaves above epicotyl: embryonic leaves > First Leaves Epicotyl: upper part of the seed > upper stem Hypocotyl: upper part of the seed > lower stem Radicle: lower part of embryonic seed > roots Cotyledons: one of 2 immature leaves in the embryo, energy source > Leaves Seed Coat: surrounds and protects seed, prevents water loss > breaks away and decomposes Food supply: stores the starches, oils, and other nutrients for the embryo Monocot Properties: -One Cotyledon -Parallel seed veins -Stem vascular bundles scattered -Flower pedals multiples of 3 Dicot Properties: -2 Cotyledons -Net like leaf veins -Vascular bundles arranged in a ring -Flower pedals multiple of 4 Vascular Tissues Translocation: the movement of material from one part of the plant to another Xylem: -Moves water down -Long hollow tube of Non living cells -fluid passes through “Pits” of regions Tracheids: tapered end of pits Vessel Elements: Pits with constant width Phloem -Living cells -Companion cells -Sieve Tube elements -Sieve Plates -Multidirectional -Transports Sugars Methods of translocation Root Pressure: Osmosis, High solute in water near end of root, Osmosis has the higher water concentration in soil to go into root Capillary Action/Cohesion Tension: Water sticks with other water molecules. When they leave the stomata, it clings with another water molecule, and the entire strand is pulled up, bringing water up. Mass Flow Theory: Sugar goes into the phloem. Reduces the concentration of water in the phloem, Water rushes into the vascular tissue, Pressure builds up and moves the water upwards Dermal Tissues -Outer layers Guard Cell: surrounds the stomata to control it are open or close Stomata: opening for gas and water exchange Ground tissue Parenchyma Cells: guard cells for storage, photosynthesis, and secretion Collenchyma Cells: thick walls for mechanical support (New plants, open for growth) Sclerenchyma Cells: thicker walls for more support (matured plants) Transpiration: water that evaporates from the leaves. 99% of water lost through transpiration Leaf Structure: photosynthesis, oxygen exhaling, shade, food for decomposers Cuticle: waterproofing, waxy, non-living, blocks everything from passing through Epidermis: protects interior tissue, makes cuticle Stoma: pore for gas exchange, food. Guard cells allow it to flow or seal Guard cells: are swollen due to high concentration of water inside, less water outside, and the water is escaping. The cell is full of water so it’s full and closes the stoma Spongy Mesophyll: Gives off oxygen and has empty space to store oxygen, filters carbon dioxide Vascular Tissue: xylem+phloem, conduct water and minerals. Dicot=net, monocot = parallel Palisade: tall cells that stand upright, does photosynthesis Stems: Water transportation, Support for holding up leaves, Protection Cortex: irregularly shaped, thin layer under bark Turgor: water filled pith and cortex will expand the stems and supports the plants Roots: Anchor the plant in place, Absorb water and nutrients, Prevent soil erosion, Store starch Epidermis: layer of cells without chloroplasts to protect and absorb liquids Root Hairs: protection and increase surface area for absorption Cortex: Bulk amount of cells that stores nutrients with large vacuoles Endodermis: uniform linked cells around the inner bundle, filters content going into interior Vascular Cylinder: vascular tissue clumped in the centre that contains xylem and phloem, delivering nutrients up to the upper parts of the plant when required. Fibrous roots: net like with fibers Tap roots: long strand with hairs around it (Carrot) -Some plants grow in soils that are depleted of Amino Acids (contains nitrogen) and will need to capture other prey to sustain nutrients Meristems: certain parts of the plants that are actively growing, Has unspecialized cells for plants Apical Meristems: meristems at the bottom of cells that grow downward Lateral Meristems: growth of the plant width wise creating cylinders of new cells Vascular Cambium: produces xylem and phloem Cork Cambium: creates the side dermal tissues Hormones: a chemical manufactured by specialized tissues on one part of the body that affects another part of the body. Targets tissues with these hormones specialized for each type of external factors -Based on external factors, each hormone is triggered Growth Promoter Hormones Auxins: controls the elongation of cells, Key for phototropism -When there is light, the cells on the opposite side will start to elongate, pushing the plant towards the light source -Auxins will inhibit root elongation -Auxins help mature the plant -Commercial Use: promote root growth, prevents ripening of fruits, and seedless fruits Gibberellins: works with auxins -Make cells wider -Made in apical meristems and chloroplasts -Fruit, flower, and leaf development -Commercial Uses: sprayed onto grapes to make them seedless, hence they’re wider Cytokinins: made in roots -does cell division and allows cell specialization -Commercial uses: sprayed on flowers to keep fresh Growth Inhibitor Hormones Abscisic Acid: Growth inhibitor -Blocks growth by closing stoma -Blocks promoting hormones -No production of sugars -used in plants during transport to prevent water loss Ethylene: causes fruits to ripe -spreads to ripe other plants as well -Commercial Uses: picked before ripening, uses CO2 to simulate ethylene to ripe them before sales Soil -Sunlight, Air, Nutrients Nitrogen: gives plants their dark green color Potassium: builds strength and disease resistance Magnesium: required for photosynthesis Sulfur: helps plants make new cells Phosphorus: development of roots and seeds Calcium: healthy cell walls Soil: broken rocks, decomposed matter, and active living things Humus: decomposing organic matter to bind mineral particles, retain water, breaks down other nutrients spaces: in soil allows for air and water, and space for animals Living organisms can be decomposed Photosynthesis : Carbon Dioxide + Water -> (light energy) glucose + oxygen Plant Technologies: Artificial Selection: to pick out only certain number of traits to remove or maintain a favored trait -Better market, storage, genes, and traits Mass Selection: take the seeds with the best performance and grow them the next season Pure Line Selection: mate certain types of plants to make desired traits reproduce (think Mendel) Crossbreeding: combine 2+ desired traits to create a plant with traces from each trait Hybrids: combining 2 parents to have 4 different traits -F2 generation seeds are unpredictable for which may be desired traits, thus, they need to buy new seeds Cloning -reproduction through asexual methods to produce the same plants every time Tissue Culture: take meristem tissues and culture them so they’re identical and plant those Gene Transfer technology: move a really desired gene, snip it out of a species, then import it into another plant where that plant will receive that information and carry out that instruction Monocultures: Growing the same plant throughout the entire field, bad diversity, prone to pests, depleting soils Technology for improving soil fertility Crop Rotation: Legumes have a relationship with nitrogen fixing bacteria. These bacteria take atmospheric nitrogen and convert them to a form that plants can use. If legumes are planted one year, the soil would be enriched in nitrogen for non-legume plants to grow the next year Farm Manure Technology: Manure applied to soil to replenish the nutrients. -Smell, bacteria, and expensive Commercial Chemical Fertilizers: man made chemicals with nutrients -Pollute water supply by supplying too much nutrients to algae -Too much burns plants Technology for pest removal Mechanical Control: involving catching, picking, or pulling unwanted pests Cultural Control: planting certain plants that attract pest predators to protect and surround plants that require the protection Sex Attractant Control: creating infertile male pests that will fertilize with females but reproduce infertile eggs Biological Control: release pathogens, diseases to kill pests. Plant plants that produce natural pesticides Hydroponic Culturing: grow plants in water so pests can’t grow in water. Nutrients dissolved in water Aeroponic Culturing: soil enclosed in containers, plants are suspended in the air to prevent pests from getting in.