Cell Cycle Study Materials

Cell Cycle Look at the diagram of the cell cycle. (Page 248) 18. When does the replication of DNA occur? What is this phase called? S phase or Synthesis. 19. What do GI and G2 represent? Growth 1 and 2. Time during Interphase. 20. What stage does the cell spend most of its life in? Interphase What does the cell do during this time? Growing, Developing, doing its job. 21. Does mitosis include cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm)? NO Gene Expression and Regulation (Page 311) 22. In the diagram to the left, what is the role of the RNA polymerase? It binds to the promoter region of the DNA to promote expression. 23. What is the role of the repressor? It binds to the suppressor region of the DNA to prevent expression. 24. The gene codes for lactase, and enzyme that digests milk sugar (lactose). 25. When lactose is present what happens to the repressor? It binds to lactose and not to the DNA so that the enzyme can be transcribed and translated (expressed.) 26. When the repressor does not attach to the repressor region of the gene, what happens to gene expression? Gene expression (translation and transcription) will continue until it is stopped by the repressor. 27. If all the cells in an organism (cells with nuclei) have the same DNA, explain, in terms of genes, how a nerve cell functions differently from a muscle cell. Some places on the DNA have constant suppressors, so those genes are never expressed. 28. Why do pancreas cells produce insulin in great amounts but blood cells does not? Only the genes for insulin are turned on (not suppressed) in pancreas cells where they are in blood cells. See question 27. 29. What is cancer? What are some causes of cancer? (Page 252) Cancer is caused by uncontrolled cell reproduction (mitosis) in which those cells reroute blood flow and create tumors which can spread and kill the organism. Cancer is caused by carcinogens that promote this type of behavior (smoking, bad diet, inactivity, radioactivity, etc) 3.02 Compare and contrast the characteristics of asexual and sexual reproduction. 30-31. Complete the following Chart of Mitosis and Meiosis. (Chapter 10 & 11-4) MITOSIS MEIOSIS Type of reproduction Asexual Sexual (Asexual or sexual) Chromosome number of 2N 2N mother cell (1N=haploid or 2N=diploid)YE Chromosome number of daughter cells (1N=haploid or 2N=diploid) Number of cell divisions 2N 1N 1 cell division 2 cell divisions (I and II) Number of cells produced 2 daughter cells 4 daughter cells When does replication happen? SOURCES OF VARIATION Crossing over Random assortment of chromosomes Gene mutations Nondisjunction fertilization In all body (somatic) cells Only in sex cells (Eggs and Sperm) Never Never During Prophase I YES YES YES can occur anytime NO YES YES can occur anytime YES 32. Put the following stages of mitosis (cell division) in order. Then Name them. 1st: B: Prophase 2nd: E: Metaphase 3rd: A: Anaphase 4th: D: Telophase 5th: C: Returning Back to Interphase 33. How many chromosomes do humans have in their…Body cells? 46 Sex cells? 23 34. What does Diploid mean? Means that a cell has 2 homologous chromosomes. 35. What does Haploid mean? Means that a cell has only 1 homologous chromosome. 36. When does crossing over occur during Meiosis? During Prophase I. Also called Chiasmata. 37. What is the major focus of Meiosis I? To mix up the genes to promote genetic diversity. 38. What is the major focus of Meiosis II? To reduce the chromosome number by half to create sex cells (eggs & sperm.) 3.03 Interpret and predict patterns of inheritance: (dominant, recessive and intermediate traits, multiple alleles, polygenic traits, sex-linked traits, independent assortment, test cross, pedigrees, and Punnett squares) 39. What does it mean when a trait is dominant? It is always expressed in the organism. Capitals (A, B, C) 40. What does it mean when a trait is recessive? It is expressed in the organism when paired with another recessive gene. Lowercase (a, b, c ) 41. In the Punnett square to the left, T = tall and t=short. Give the parents genotypes. Tt and Tt 42. Give the phenotype for the parents. Tall and Tall. 43. What are the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring? TT, Tt, tt Tall and short 44. What is the genotypic ratio of the offspring? ¼ TT, ½ Tt, ¼ tt 45. What is the phenotypic ratio of the offspring? ¾ Tall and ¼ short 46. What environmental factors might affect the expression of these genes for height? Explain. Mutagens, nutrition, environment because they play a role in how genes are expressed in the offspring. 47. What does it mean if a trait is codominant? (Page 272) Both alleles are expressed in the phenotype (physical look). 48. Some genes produce intermediate phenotypes. Cross a pure breeding red flower (RR) with a pure breeding white flower (WW). Give the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring. Genotype: 100% RW Phenotype: 100% Pink Flowers What type of inheritance is this? Incomplete dominance 49. Explain the inheritance of the following disorders: (Autosomal dominant? Autosomal recessive? Sex-linked dominant? Sex-linked recessive?) Sickle cell anemia: Autosomal codominant Cystic fibrosis: Autosomal Recessive Huntington’s: Autosomal dominant Blood type (Page 344) 50. If a woman with type A blood has a child with a man with type B blood and their first child has type O blood, give the genotypes of the woman and the man and do the cross. (Alleles are IA, IB, and i) 51. What are the odds that they will have a child with type O blood again? ¼ or 25% 52. What are the odds that they will have a child with homozygous type A blood? 0% 53. What are the odds that they will have a child with type AB blood? ¼ or 25% 54. A blood test is done to see if one of three men is the father of a child. The child has type O blood, the mother has type A blood. Man #1 has type AB blood, Man #2 has type A blood, Man #3 has type O blood. Are there any men that can be ruled out as the father? Man #1, because he can donate either an A or B allele, neither giving O type blood. 55. What does it mean to have multiple alleles? There are more than 2 types of alleles for a particular genotype. Polygenic traits (Page 395) 56. What does polygenic traits mean? Many genes (genotypes) control one particular phenotypic trait. 57. Using 3 genes (A,a and B,b and C,c) explain hair color in terms of these genes. How many phenotypes are possible? Hair color can vary from ABC to abc, where most individuals will be towards the average. So you will see a bell curve of possibilities, distributed over 64. Sex Chromosomes (Pages 350 & 351) 58. What are the sex chromosomes in males? XY In Females? XX 59. Colorblindness & hemophilia are sex-linked traits. What chromosome location (#) are these genes found? #23 60. Cross a female who is a carrier for hemophilia with a normal male. XCXc x XCY 61. What are the odds that they will have a child with hemophilia? ¼ or 25% (male only) 62. What are the odds that they will have a daughter with hemophilia? 0% or none 63. What are the odds that they will have a daughter who is a carrier for hemophilia? ½ or 50% 64. Why are males more likely to show this type of disorder? (Who (mother/father) is likely to give them the bad gene?) It is their mother who donates X’s which carry the disease. The father donates Y’s to sons which do not carry disease. Karyotype (Page 341) 65. What is the gender of the person whose karyotype is shown to the left? Female, because of the 2 X’s. 66. What is the disorder that this person has? Trisomy 21 or Down Syndrome. 67. What is your evidence? There are 3 chromosomes at location #21. 68. What are some of the characteristics of this type of disorder? Mental retardation, facial abnormalities. Pedigrees 69. What is the inheritance pattern shown by this pedigree? Autosomal recessive. 70. How do you know? Males and females equally affected (autosomal) and it skips generations (recessive) 71. Using A,a, what is the genotype of person II4? aa 72. What is the genotype of person I3? Aa Test Cross (Chapter 11) 73. Describe the test cross that a farmer would use to determine the genotype of an animal that shows a dominant trait. Use the following Punnett squares and the letters A and a to explain your answer. In a test cross, we already know the genotype of the recessive parent (aa) based upon the recessive phenotype. If there are any recessive phenotype offspring, then the unknown parent must be heterozygous! Mendel’s Laws (Page 272) 74. Explain each of Mendel’s Laws and explain the experiments he used to determine these laws. 1) Law of segregation of characters (alleles) In most sexually reproducing organisms each adult has two copies of each gene, one from each parent. These genes are segregated from each other when gametes are formed. 2) Law of independent assortment (of alleles) Genes that segregate independently from each other and do not influence each other’s inheritance. So heterozygous organisms have a pattern of 1: 2: 1 or 9: 3: 3: 1. 75. How does meiosis lead to segregation and independent assortment? Meiosis allows whole chromosomes to segregate independently of each other, lending authenticity to Mendel’s laws. 76. Double check your learning, solve the following genetics problem: A brown mink crossed with a silverblue mink produced all brown offspring. When these F1 mink were crossed among themselves they produced 47 brown animals and 15 silverblue animals (F2 generation). Determine all the genotypes and phenotypes, and their relative ratios, in the F1 and F2 generations. F1 F2 Genotypes: 100% Bb Genotypes: ¼ BB, ½ Bb, ¼ bb Phenotypes: 100% Brown Mink Phenotypes: ¾ Brown Mink, ¼ Silverblue mink 3.04 Assess the impacts of genomics on individuals and society (Human genome project & biotechnology) 77. What were the goals of the human genome project? Begun in 1990, it was a collaborate effort among scientists to sequence the human genome. 78. How will the human genome project be useful in finding whether individuals may carry genes for genetic conditions? This could help identify genetic disorders in couples or devise methods of gene therapy. 79. How will the human genome project be useful in developing gene therapies? (Page 359) In gene therapy, the absent or faulty gene is replaced by a normal, working gene. To the left is an electrophoresis gel, showing evidence from a rape case. (Pages 356 & 357) 80. Could the defendant be the rapist? (Y/N) NO The Bands do not match to the defendant. 81. Which fragments of DNA are the longest? Explain. The longest bands are the largest base pairs digested by the restriction enzymes. They are bigger so they move more slowly across the gel. Hence, they are found towards the bottom of the gel. 82. What other ways can DNA fingerprinting be useful? DNA fingerprinting can be used to determine disease, other crimes, or in paternity cases. 83. What is a restriction enzyme? This is an enzyme used in DNA fingerprinting that cuts DNA at certain places along the DNA strand. These fragments can be measured as a function of their slow or fast movement across an electrophoretic gel. 84. Since DNA has a (-) charge, which way will it go in a gel? Towards the positive end. Which type of fragments move the fastest? Smallest Which move the slowest? Biggest 85. How can amniocentesis be used to screen for genetic disorders? This is a process in which a needle is used to extract the amniotic fluid surrounding a developing fetus in the mother’s womb. It can be tested using a karyotype for a chromosomal disorder. Transgenic organisms & Transformation (Pages 327, 331-332) 86. Describe the process that is shown in the diagram to the left. A bacterium has had a human gene for insulin inserted into its genome. The bacterium will use its normal processes of transcription and translation to produce the human protein of insulin. 87. What is the value of this technology? Scientists can harvest the insulin protein from the bacteria to use in human patients who need human insulin like diabetes patients. 88. What are some other applications of this type of technology? Bacteria will make any type of protein inserted into their genome, so scientists can make any type of protein that is needed. (Hemoglobin, etc) 89. This process can be used to make GMO’s –genetically modified organisms. What are some of the ethical issues surrounding this technology? We do not know the long term affects of using this type of technology. Long term studies are not yet available. Stem Cells 90. The diagram to the right shows how stem cells can develop into many types of different cells. What are some of the potential benefits that could come from the growing of stem cells in a laboratory? Scientists can grow into any new cell type that has been damaged or mutated in certain individuals. People may regain brain or neural function in cells that no longer reproduce at maturity which would help in spinal cord injuries or Alzheimer’s patients. 91. What are some of the ethical issues surrounding the collection and use of stem cells? Some stems cells are harvested from discarded or aborted embryos. But now, some stem cells can be taken from teeth or other sources.