A&P 1 Exam 1 Study Guide

A&P 1 Exam 1 Study Guide 1. Subject of Anatomy and Physiology:  Anatomy: the study of structure or form of human body  Physiology: the study of body’s function 2. 11 organ systems: a. Integumentary system: hair, skin, nails  Protects the body from the external environment  Produces vitamin D  Retains water  Regulates body temperature b. Skeletal system: bones, joints  Supports the body  Protects internal organs  Provides leverage for movement  Produces blood cells  Stores calcium salts c. Muscular system: skeletal muscle  Produces movement  Controls body openings  Generate heart d. Nervous system: brain, spinal cord, nerves  Regulates body functions  Provides for sensation, movement, automatic functions and higher mental functions via nerve impulses e. Endocrine system: pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, thymus gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries (female), testes (male).  Regulates body functions  Regulates the functions of muscles, glands, and other tissues through the secretion of chemicals called hormones f. Cardiovascular system: blood vessels, heart  Pumps and delivers oxygen poor blood to lungs and oxygen rich blood to the tissues.  Removes wastes from the tissues  Transports cells, nutrients and other substances g. Lymphatic system: tonsils, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymphatic vessels  Return excess tissue fluid to the cardiovascular system  Provides immunity h. Respiratory system: nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs.  Delivers oxygen to the blood  Removes carbon dioxide from the body  Maintains the acid-base balance of the blood i. Digestive system: mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, liver, stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, large intestine, small intestine  Digests food  Absorbs nutrients into the blood  Removes food waste  Regulates fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance j. Urinary system: kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra.  Removes metabolic wastes from the blood  Regulates fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance  Stimulates blood cell production k. Reproductive system: i. Male: prostate gland, ductus deferens, testis, penis  Produces and transports sperm  Secretes hormones  Sexual function ii. Female: mammary glands, uterine tube, ovary, uterus, vagina  Produces and transports eggs  Site of fetal development, fetal nourishment childbirth, and lactation  Secretes hormones  Sexual function 3. Anatomic position:  Standing upright  Feet are shoulder width apart  Head and palms are facing forward 4. Directions:  Posterior: back  Anterior: front  Superior: toward the head  Inferior: toward the tail  Lateral: far away from the midline  Medial: close to the midline  Proximal: closer to the origin  Distal: further from the origin  Deep: further away from the skin surface  Superficial: closer to the surface of the skin 5. Planes: a. Sagittal: divides body into right and left sections (midsagittal: 2 equal sections, parasagittal plane: unequal sections) b. Frontal: divides into anterior and posterior sections c. Transverse: divides into superior and inferior sections d. Oblique: taken at an angle 6. 7. Cavities: fluid filled space within body; axial region of body is divided into several cavities. a. Dorsal: located on posterior side of body  Cranial cavity: within skull; protects brain  Vertebral cavity: within vertebral column; protects spinal cord b. Ventral- thoracic:  Pleural: each surround either left or right lung  Mediastinum: between pleural cavities; house heart, great vessels, trachea, and esophagus; not within serous membrane  Pericardial: within mediastinum; within serous membrane that surrounds heart. c. Abdominopelvic cavity: subdivided into superior abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity (digestive, lymphatic, reproductive, and urinary) 8. Peritoneal cavity- abdominal subcavity found within serous membrane 9. Heart, lung, intestinal membrane 10. 4 segments of the body cavities: a. Right upper quadrant b. Right lower quadrant c. Left upper quadrant d. Left lower quadrant 11. 9 regions of the abdominopelvic cavities: using two parasagittal and 2 transverse imaginary lines. 12. Clinical example of MRI: 13. Cells: a. Definition: functional units of the living organisms b. Structures: 14. Organelles: a. Mitochondria:  Genes produce mitochondrial proteins  Aerobic cellular respiration  Complete digestion of fuel molecules to synthesize ATP  Powerhouses of cell b. Ribosome:  Attached to external surface of ER membrane. o Synthesize proteins for export, the proteins that become part of plasma membrane, or serve as enzymes in lysosomes.  Free ribosomes: suspended within cytosol. (synthesize all other proteins) c. Golgi Apparatus:  Modification, packaging and sorting of proteins  Proteins are modified within lumen (signal sequence may be added)  Formation of secretory vesicles d. Lysosomes:  Contain digestive enzymes formed by golgi  Participate in digestion of unneeded substances  Digest contents of endocytosed vesicles e. Perixosomes:  Membrane-enclosed sacs, smaller than lysosomes  Pinched off vesicles from rough ER  Proteins are incorporated to serve as their enzymes  Metabolic functions include f. Centrosome with centrioles:  Primary function: organizes microtubules within cytoskeleton  Functions in cellular division by forming the anchor for mitotic  Spindle that pulls chromosomes to opposite poles g. Microvilli:  Microscopic extensions of plasma membrane, lack powered movement.  Supported by microfilaments, found in cell of small intestine  Main function to increase the service of absorption and secretion. h. Nucleus:  Make and synthesize the ribosome 15. Passive membrane transport:  No ATP is required  No expenditure of cellular energy required. Substances move down their concentration gradient.  Diffusion: movement of solutes o Simple: no transport protein required. o Facilitated: transport protein required  Channel mediated: ion moves through channel  Carrier mediated: small polar molecule moved by carier protein.  Osmosis: movement of water across selectively permeable membrane 16. Active membrane transport:  ATP is required  Requires expenditure of cellular energy involves either the movement of a substance up its concentration gradient or the formation or loss of a vesicle.  Active transport: ion or small molecule moved agaínt the concentration gradient. o Primary active: energy source from ATP o Secondary active: energy source from movement of another substance  Symport: 2 substances moved in same direction  Antiport: 2 substances moved in opposite directions  Vesicular transport: involves a vesicle. o Exocytosis: vesicular contents released from cell o Endocytosis: material brought into cell as vesicle is formed  Phagocytosis: cellular eating  Pinocytosis: cellular drinking  Receptor-mediated endocytosis: receptor required. 17. Osmosis: movement of water in/out of cells  Cell gains or loses water with osmosis along with a change in cell volume and osmosis pressure.  Tonicity: the ability of a solution to change the volume or pressure of a cell by osmosis. 18. Solution a. Hypertonic: higher concentration outside the cell b. Hypotonic: lower concentration outside the cell c. Isotonic: same concentration inside and outside the cell 19. Vesicular transport:  Endocytosis (vesicle in) o Pinocytosis o Phagocytosis o Receptor mediated endocytosis  Exocytosis (vesicle out) 20. Receptor-mediated vesicular: uses receptors on plasma membrane to bind molecules within interstitial fluid and bring the molecules into cell 21. Cell organelles: a. Membrane bound organelles: include endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria b. Non-membrane bound organelles: includes ribosomes, cytoskeleton, centrosome, proteasomes 22. Mitosis: a. Prophase:  Chromatin condenses so sister chromatids are visible  Nucleolus disperses  Mitotic spindle attach to sister chromatids  Two centriole pairs separate and begin migrating to opposite poles of the cell  Nuclear envelope fragments b. Metaphase:  Spindle fibers pull sister chromatids to align on equator of cell. c. Anaphase:  Sister chromatids separate as spindle fibers shorten  Daughter chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles  Cell elongates  Cytokinesis begins as organelles and cytosol are divided. d. Telophase:  Nuclear envelopes reassemble nucleoli reform chromosomes are no longer distinct DNA returns to chromatin form 23. Cytokinesis:  Cleavage furrow forms  Daughter cells separate 24. DNA: 25. 4 types of tissues: a. Epithelial: 3% Packed sheets of cells with no visible ECM; cover and line all body surfaces and cavities; form glands. b. Connective: 45%  Connect all other tissues in body to one another  ECM is a prominent feature with cells scattered throughout  Bind, support, protect and allow for transportation of substances c. Muscle: 50%  Capable of generating force by contracting  Little ECM between cells d. Nervous: 2%  Consists of cells capable of generating, sending, receiving messages and cells that support this activity all within a unique ECM 26. Cell connections: cell’s plasma membranes are linked by integral proteins  Tight junction example: between cells in blood vessels; prevent blood from existing vessels  Desmosomes example: found in tissues subjected to a great deal of mechanical stress such as epithelia of skin  Gap junction example: found in between cells that communicate with electrical signals such as cardiac muscle cells 27. Epithelial tissue structure and functions:  Found on every internal and external body surface; barriers between body and external environment; line organs and fluid filled cavities. a. Protection- form mechanical and thermal injury b. Immune defenses- prevent invasion by microorganisms; house cells of immune system c. Secretion- form glands that produce substances like hormones and oils d. Transport into other tissues- selectively permeable membranes e. Sensation- rich nerve supply; detects changes in internal and external environments. 28. Classification of epithelial tissues with examples a. Layers:  Simple: 1 layer  Stratified: more than 1 layer b. Shapes:  Columnar  Cuboidal  Squamous 29. Exocrine glands:  Release products onto apical surfaces of epithelium located on external surface of body or lining a hollow organ that opens to outside of body  Most exocrine glands are multicellular glands made up of clusters of secretory cells arranged in different ways. 30. Three main components of connective tissue:  Fibers  Cells  Ground substances  31. Classification of connective tissues with example:  Loose  Dense  Reticular  Adipose 32. Goblet cells:  Most common unicellular exocrine gland; found in digestive and respiratory tracts; secrete mucus, a thick sticky liquid that protects underlying epithelium. 33. Skin general structures plus hypodermis:  Two main components: o Epidermis: superficial layer that consists of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium resting on a basement membrane o Dermis: deep to epidermis and basement membrane; consists of loose connective tissue and dense irregular connective tissue.  Hypodermis- know as superficial fascia or subcutaneous fat, is deep to dermis. It is made of loose connective and adipose tissues. (not part of skin but connects skin to deeper structures like muscle and bone. 34. Epidermis: 5 layers of cells  Stratum basale: single layer of stem cells resting on basement membrane  Stratum spinosum: thickest layer, sits on top of stratum basale so still close to blood supply.  Stratum granulosum: 3 to five layers of cells with prominent cytoplasmic granules; filled with keratin bundles or a lipid based substance; both secreted by exocytosis  Stratum lucidum: narrow layer of clear, dead keratinocytes; found only in thick skin  Stratum corneum: outermost layer of epidermis; consists of several layers of dead flattened keratinocytes with thickened plasma membranes. 35. Residents cells of epidermis:  Dendritic- located in stratum spinosum; phagocytes of immune system, protect skin and deeper tissues  Merkel- oval cells scattered throughout stratum basale; sensory receptors associated with small neurons in dermis  Melanocytes- located in stratum basale; produce melanin protein skin pigment ranging from orange red to brown black. 36. Melanin: produced by melanocytes in stratum basale of epidermis. Composed of 2 molecules of amino acid tyrosine; chemically bonded by a series of reactions catalyzed by enzyme tyrosinase. Variations of pigmentation:  Freckle- small area of increased pigmentation; resulting from increased melanin production in local spot  Mole or nevus- area of increased pigmentation; due to a local proliferation of melanocytes, not an increase in melanin production.  Albinism- melanocytes fail to manufacture tyrosinase result in lack of skin pigmentation and greatly increased risk of keratinocyte DNA damage from UV radiation. 37. Avascular and vascular features of epidermis and dermis 38. Skin marks and lines: small visible lines in epidermis created by interaction between dermis and epidermis; best seen in thick skin of palmar surfaces of hands and fingers and plantar surface of feet and toes.  Cleavage lines: gaps found between collagen bundles in dermis create indentations in epidermis  Flexure lines: in areas of body, such as surrounding joints, reticular layer is tightly anchored to deeper structures that create deep creases. 39. Skin cancers:  Cancer- one of most common diseases in world; caused by mutations in DNA that induce a cell to lose control of cell cycle. o Cancerous tumors are able to metastasize; tumor cells spread through blood or lymphatic vessels to other tissues and continue to divide. o Damage caused by metastatic tumor cells alters function of invaded organs. a. Basal cell carcinoma:  Most common of all cancer types  Skin that is exposed to UV radiation is at risk for developing these tumors. b. Squamous cell carcinoma:  Second most common skin cancer  Cancer of keratinocytes of stratum spinosum. c. Malignant melanoma: cancer of melanocytes  Early detection of melanoma is critical due to its tendency to metastasize  Prognosis depends on size of the tumor, depth to which it extends into dermis, and whether it has metastasized to other tissues. d. Malignant melanoma: can be distinguished from other skin cancers and normal moles using ABCDE rule  A: asymmetrical shape  B: border irregularity  C: color, usually blue-black or a variety of colors  D: diameter generally larger than 6 mm  E: evolving shape and size. 40. Vitamin D production in skin: cells found deep in epidermis convert cholesterol to the first inactive form of Vitamin D. 41. Hairs:  Provides protection by preventing substances and organisms from external environment from entering eyes and nose o On head, protects underlying skin of scalp from UV radiation and mechanical trauma o Hairs are associated with a small sensory neuron; plays a role in detecting changes in environment. a. Structures:  Shaft: made up of columns of dead keratinized epithelial cells that have completed keratinization process.  Root: segment of hair embedded in dermis; surrounded by a small sensory neuron.  Matrix: small number of keratinocytes found at base of root; actively divide. b. Texture:  Lanugo: thin, nonpigmented hair found covering nearly entire body of a fetus; generally fall out around birth; replaced with one of two hair types  Terminal hair: thick, coarse, and pigmented hair found surrounding eyes on scalp.  Vellus hair: thinner nonpigmented hair; found over remaining regions of body. c. Pigments: determined by melanin produced in matrix by melanocytes; produce a range of colors  Black hair has little melanin  Black hair which contains a lot of melanin  Red hair has a special reddish pigment containing iron.  Melanocytes produce less melanin with aging so hair eventually turns gray or white