Memory - Psychology Chapter

Chapter 5: Memory 5.1 How Memory Functions i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Encoding a. Encoding is the input of information from the environment and our brains label or code it b. The encoding of words and their meaning is known as semantic encoding c. Visual encoding is the encoding of images d. Acoustic encoding is the encoding of sounds, words in particular Storage a. There are three distinct stages: sensory memory, short term memory, and long-term memory b. Short term memories are stored in three short term systems: a visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer, and a phonological loop Sensory Memory a. Sensory memory is very brief storage of up to a couple of second b. Since we are bombarded with sensory information so often, we cannot absorb all of it or even most of it Short Term Memory a. Short term memory is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory b. Short term memory storage lasts about 20 seconds Long Term Memory a. Long term memory is the continuous storage of information b. Explicit memories are those we consciously try to remember and recall c. Implicit memories are memories that are not part of our consciousness d. Procedural memory stores information about how to do things e. Stored in our semantic memory is our knowledge about words, concepts, and languagebased knowledge and facts Retrieval a. Recalling means you can access information without cues b. Recognition happens when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again c. Relearning involves learning information that you previously had learned 5.2 Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory i. ii. a. the main parts of the brain involved with memory are the amygdala, the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex The Amygdala a. The main job of the amygdala is to regulate emotions such as fear and aggression b. The amygdala is involved in memory consolidation: the process of transferring new learning into long term memory The Hippocampus a. Hippocampus is involved in normal recognition memory as well as spatial memory iii. iv. b. Another job is to project information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect them with other connected memories c. Injury to this area leaves us unable to process new declarative memories The Cerebellum and Prefrontal Cortex a. The cerebellum allows you to create implicit memories even if you lose your explicit memories Neurotransmitters a. Specific neurotransmitters involved with the process of memory are epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine b. Strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories, weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories 5.3 Problems with Memory i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Amnesia a. Amnesia is the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma Anterograde Amnesia a. Anterograde amnesia is commonly caused by brain trauma; you cannot remember new information although you remember events prior to your injury Retrograde Amnesia a. Retrograde amnesia is loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma Memory Construction and Reconstruction a. The formation of new memories is sometimes called construction and the process of bringing up old memories is called reconstruction b. Distorting facts can happen in the process of retrieving old memories and combining them with new memories Suggestibility a. Suggestibility describes the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories Eyewitness Misidentification a. The Misinformation Effect i. An eyewitness’s memory of an event is very flexible due to the misinformation effect Controversies over Repressed and Recovered Memories a. Recall of false autobiographical memories is called false memory syndrome b. Loftus challenged the idea that individuals can repress memories of traumatic events from childhood and then recover those memories years later through therapeutic techniques c. Steps have been taken to decrease the suggestibility of witnesses such as modifying how witnesses are questioned and how police lineups are conducted Forgetting a. Encoding Failure i. Encoding failure is when memory loss happens before the actual memory process begins b. Memory Errors i. The seven sins of memory is categorized into three groups: forgetting, distortion, and intrusion 1. Transience (forgetting) a. Accessibility of memory decreases over time 2. Absentmindedness (forgetting) a. Forgetting caused by lapses in attention 3. Blocking (forgetting) a. Accessibility of information is temporarily blocked 4. Misattribution (distortion) a. Source of memory is confused 5. Suggestibility (distortion) a. False memories 6. Bias (distortion) a. Memories distorted by current belief system 7. Persistence (intrusion) a. Inability to forget undesirable memories ii. There are several types of bias: 1. Stereotypical bias involves racial and gender biases 2. Egocentric bias involves enhancing out memories of the past 3. Hindsight bias happens when we think an outcome was inevitable after the fact c. Interference i. Proactive interference is when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information ii. Retroactive interference happens when information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information 5.4 Ways to Enhance Memory i. ii. Memory-Enhancing Strategies a. One strategy is rehearsal or the conscious repetition of information to be remembered b. Another strategy is chunking which is organizing information into manageable bits or chunks c. Mnemonic devices are memory aids that help us organize information for encoding d. Another strategy is expressive writing and saying words aloud How to Study Effectively a. Use elaborative rehearsal b. Apply the self-reference effect c. Don’t forget the forgetting curve d. Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse e. Be aware of interference f. Keep moving g. Get enough sleep h. Make use of mnemonic devices