Biology Review Packet Key

Name: _________________________________ Goal 1: The learner will develop an understanding of the physical, chemical and cellular basis of life. (Chs. 1, 2, 7, 8 and 9) 1. Explain the difference between biotic and abiotic factors. (Bio = LIFE Biotic: living things like mushrooms, a dog, a plant, bacteria Abiotic: nonliving things like water, air, metal, the sun A = NOT) 2. What must present for an organism to be considered “living”? Must contain carbon Must be able to grow, adapt, develop, metabolize, reproduce, have cells, react and maintain homeostasis 3. What is homeostasis? Maintaining a constant environment in your body. EX: shivering/sweating to keep body temperature the same. 4. What is the difference between an autotroph and heterotroph? Autotroph: Organism that makes its own food (think “automatic) EX: PLANT = PRODUCER Heterotroph: Has to eat to get its food EX: ANIMALS = CONSUMER 5. What is the difference between a producer and consumer? Producer: “produces/makes” the food in an ecological system Consumer: has to “consume/get” the food from someone/somewhere (EX: herbivore, carnivore, omnivore, decomposer) 6. How much energy passes from one organism to the next in a food chain? Only 10% of energy is passed from 1 organism to the next in a food chain 90% (the rest) is LOST as HEAT! 7. In an energy pyramid, what decreases the higher up you go? Energy and biomass both decrease the higher up you go in an energy pyramid Goal 4: The learner will develop an understanding of ecological relationships among organisms. (Ch. 3, 4, 5, 6) 8. What is a niche? A niche is the job or role of an organism in an ecosystem (aka, how an organism survives) EX: a rabbit’s niche is to eat veggies and urinate in the garden 9. How can two organisms live in the same habitat but different niches? 2 birds might live in the same tree (same habitat) but 1 bird’s niche might be to eat the seeds of the tree and the other bird’s niche might be to eat the flowers of the tree. 10. Name 3 ways that humans are responsible for most modern day environmental issues. 1) Habitat destruction (deforestation, invasive species, melting glaciers, etc) 2) Biodiversity Loss (humans are responsible for the killing, endangerment and extinction of many organisms) 3) Bioaccumulation 11. What is DDT and why do we no longer spray our crops with it? DDT is a pesticide the USA used to spray on crops but it ended up in our rivers and lakes which killed small fish, and therefore also affected big fish that ate the small fish, and also affected eagles and therefore decreased the eagle population 12. What does the pH scale measure? The pH scale measures whether something is an acid or a base. If a solution measure between 1 and 6, it is an ACID; if a solution measures a perfect 7, it is considered NEUTRAL; if a solution measures between 8 and 14, it is a BASE 13. Is acid rain dangerous? Why or why not? Yes, acid rain is very dangerous. It can kill off entire forests and fish in lakes and rivers. Acid rain is caused by air pollution which is produced by burning fossil fuels 14. What is a nonnative/invasive species? What is 1 example we discussed in class? A nonnative or invasive species is an organism that is brought in from another country. These organisms don’t have natural predators and therefore end up taking over the environment and push out all the native species. EX: kudzu brought from Asia has taken over and killed off other natural plants in Eastern USA 15. What do invasive species do to the environment they are in? They take over and push out the native species in that area 16. What does sustainability mean? Think about the movie we watched on the last day before break. Sustainability is when humans work to protect their environment. EX: recycling, replanting trees, cleaning streams and rivers 17. Define these types of relationships (symbiosis). a. mutualism – BOTH organisms benefit ☺ ☺ “you scratch my back, I scratch yours” b. commensalism- ONE organism benefits, the other doesn’t care ☺ c. parasitism- ONE organism BENEFITS, ONE organism is HARMED ☺ ☹ The following is a non-symbiotic relationship: d. predator/prey- It a predator prey relationship, we have one organism that is the killer and the other organism is the one that gets eaten. 18. How does competition limit the growth of a population? In a population, competition occurs when there is a demand for resources (such as food, water, habitat) exceeds the supply (availability) for those resources. For the following questions, refer to the packet we did in class on cycles, climate change and energy pyramids: 19. Describe the following cycles: a. water cycleIn the water cycle, water is cycled between the ocean, the atmosphere and land. Evaporation: water changes from liquid to gas (water leaves the ocean as a liquid and goes into the atmosphere as gas) Transpiration: water evaporates from the leaves of plants and goes back into the atmosphere Condensation: water changes from gas back to liquid (water condenses, fills up a cloud and falls back down to Earth as precipitation. Precipitation: anything that falls from the sky back onto land and into the ocean (rain, snow, sleet, hail, etc) b. carbon cycleCarbon is key to all living things. Carbon makes up the C in CHO (carbohydrates), CHO (lipids), CHON (proteins) and CHOPN (nucleic acids) Photosynthesis is the only way we cycle Carbon OUT of the atmosphere. Plants perform photosynthesis and take CO2 out of the atmosphere by breathing it in and breathing out Oxygen. Humans are pumping lots of CO2 back into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels which is messing up the cycle even more since we are also cutting down trees that would otherwise help take CO2 out of the atmosphere. Volcanoes also put CO2 into the atmosphere because there is lots of Carbon in the lava and ash that erupts. c. nitrogen cycleNitrogen is important because it is found in DNA and RNA (the N in CHOPN) which help make amino acids🡪proteins (The N in CHON). However, Nitrogen must be fixed before it can be used by plants. We get it by eating plants or eating animals that have eaten plants. 20. What is nitrogen fixation and what organisms are involved? Nitrogen fixation is the process by which bacteria take Nitrogen gas (N2) from the atmosphere and convert it into ammonia which is a form of Nitrogen that can be used by plants. Denitrification is the opposite of nitrogen fixation. This is when other types of bacteria take usable Nitrogen (like ammonia or nitrates and nitrites and convert it back into Nitrogen gas (the unusable kind) 21. How does photosynthesis relate to energy getting into ecosystems? Sunlight (RADIANT ENERGY) is the main energy source for life on Earth. Photosynthesis is related because autotrophs (plants) take sunlight/radiant energy and make their own food (glucose) through the process of photosynthesis. Sunlight/radiant energy provides the energy needed to take water and CO2 and turn it into oxygen and glucose for animals to eat and breathe so that they can perform cellular respiration to get ATP energy! Basically, photosynthesis starts the whole process for plants, animals and ecosystems!! 22. What role do decomposers play in the environment? Decomposers such as fungi, break down organic matter! 23. What is a trophic level? A trophic level is what we call each step in a food chain, food web or energy pyramid. 24. What is a food chain? Draw a food chain including the following organisms (plankton, minnow, frog). A food chain is a series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten. Plankton 🡪 Minnow 🡪 Frog 25. What happens to energy in an ecosystem? What happens to matter? In an ecosystem, everything starts with Radiant energy from the sun which is taken in by autotrophs and then flows in one direction (up in the energy pyramid to consumers and then decomposers) but 90% is lost as heat. Matter on the other hand is recycled through the water cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle and phosphorus cycle. 26. How much energy is passed from one trophic level to the next in an ecosystem? What happens to the rest? Only about 10% of energy available in 1 trophic level is passed to organisms in the next trophic level. The rest (about 90%) is lost as heat. This is why we say that energy in an ecosystem or energy pyramid is not very efficient! 27. What is global warming? What causes it? Global warming is 1 major factor that contributes to climate change on Earth. It is the steady increase in temperature and is caused by too much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which causes the sun’s radiation to be trapped on Earth. We (humans) are releasing too much CO2 into the atmosphere because we are burning too many fossil fuels and cutting down too many trees which are the only thing that can take out some of the CO2 from the atmosphere. 28. What are the possible effects of global warming? Glaciers are melting and oceans are rising because global warming causes an increase in temperatures on Earth. 29. What are some ways that carbon dioxide emissions can be reduced? Plant more trees and use renewable resources such as solar panels, wind turbines, etc. instead of relying on burning coal, oil, etc. 30. What is carrying capacity? Carrying capacity is the max # of organisms an ecosystem can support. 31. Define and give an example of: a. density-dependent limiting factor: A density dependent limiting factor can be anything that depends on the size of the population. EX: resource availability (food, water, shelter), waste production, competition predation and disease b. density-independent limiting factor: A density independent factor doesn’t care about population size and can happen regadless of how big or how small the population is. EX: fire, drought, landslide, earthquake, temperature, etc. 32. What is the difference between a J curve and an S-curve? J—exponential growth: The population grows extremely fast because there is an unlimited amount of resources S—logistical growth: The population grows until it reaches the carrying capacity and then will fluctuate at the carrying capacity based on the availability of limited resources and predator/prey competition. 33. What is the difference between birthrate and death rate? Birth rate = # of people born each year Death rate = # of people that die each year. 34. What is the difference between rapid growth and stable growth? Rapid growth = when there are more babies being born that old people dying. We see rapid growth in poor and developing countries. Stable growth = Less babies are being born and lots of old people. We see stable growth in wealthy, developed and industrialized countries such as the USA because we have good healthcare to keep older people living longer and less babies are being born because people are very career-driven and work more than time is available to care for children. 35. 1. 2. 3. 4. What are the 4 main ways that humans impact natural resources on Earth? Resource depletion (using more resources than we can make) Deforestation Pesticide Use Bioaccumulation Now we get to the good stuff! Starting from the very beginning and moving forward, the rest of the packet reviews information from Day 1 until Thanksgiving. REALLY focus on reviewing this material and answering the review questions for your benefit!! 1. Complete the table regarding the four types of organic molecules: Organic Molecule: Elements Building Blocks What do they do? Present: (Monomers) Carbohydrates CHO Lipids CHO MONOSACCHARID E (HEXAGON SHAPE) INSTANT ENERGY LONG CHAINS OF C AND H WITH SOME O LONG TERM ENERGY STORAGE “TRIGLYCERIDE” AND MAKE UP CELL MEMBRANE AMINO ACIDS JUST ABOUT EVERYTHING IN OUR BODY Proteins CHON Example GLUCOSE GLYCOGEN STARCH CELLULOSE AND STRUCTURE FOR PLANTS PHOSPHOLIPIDS STEROIDS ENZYMES HEMOGLOBIN INSULIN STORE OUR GENETIC INFO (DNA) Nucleic Acids CHOPN NUCLEOTIDES HELP WITH PROTEIN SYNTHESIS (RNA) DNA and RNA 2. What are proteins made up of? Amino acids held together by peptide bonds 3. Hemoglobin is a very important protein. What does it do? Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that helps blood carry oxygen throughout the body. 4. Insulin is another very important protein in our body. What does it do? Insulin helps maintain proper blood sugar levels by helping cells 5. Define enzymes. Enzymes (a type of protein) are often times called CATALYSTS because they SPEED UP REACTIONS. Without enzymes, most of the reactions that happen in our body would not be able to happen and we would die. This is because every reaction needs a certain amount of energy (called ACTIVATION ENERGY) to start. The way enzymes work is they LOWER the ACTIVATION ENERGY and therefore make reactions go FASTER because not as much energy is needed to start it. 6. How do temperature and pH affect enzymes? Enzymes are very specific and fit together like a lock and key with something called a SUBSTRATE. If you change the shape of the enzyme it won’t work anymore because the shape of the lock will be messed up and the key wont be able to fit. Temperature and pH are 2 ways that can affect the SHAPE of an enzyme and therefore cause the enzyme to not work anymore. This is called DENATURATION 7. Explain the lock-and-key model of enzymes and substrates. SEE ANSWER TO QUESTION 6 8. What is a substrate? SEE ANSWER TO QUESTION 6 9. How do enzymes work/what do they do? SEE ANSWER TO QUESTION 5 and 6 10. What is it called when enzymes get messed up and cannot work? SEE ANSWER TO QUESTION 6 11. List the function and describe the structure (drawing it is a good idea too) of the following organelles: a. nucleus: The brain of the cell. Controls all cell functions! b. plasma membrane: Controls what enters and leaves the cell. Helps the cell maintain homeostasis. c. ribosomes: The site of protein synthesis!! Where mRNA and tRNA come together to link amino acids into a protein. d. mitochondria: The “powerhouse” of the cell. Provides energy (ATP) by cellular respiration e. cell wall: Only found in plant cells! (and some prokaryotes—bacteria) Provides protection and support for the cell. f. chloroplast: Only found in plant cells! Where PHOTOSYNTHESIS happens! Contains a pigment called chlorophyll which keeps the plant green and captures light energy. g. vacuole: Only found in plant cells! Stores food, water, enzymes and waste. 12. Explain the differences in size, chromosome structure, and organelles between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. PROKARYOTES: much smaller and less complex cells, DNA is in a circular shape called a plasmid (NO NUCLEUS), do not have any membrane-bound organelles. DO have RIBOSOMES! EUKARYOTES: much larger and more complex cells; includes plant and animal cells as well as protists and fungi; have a nucleus which contains the DNA/chromosomes, and have all membrane-bound organelles. 13. What is the difference between prokaryotes, plants, and animal cells? Prokaryotes are your BACTERIA cells. See Question 12 for more explanation. DNA = plasmid, has ribosomes, a cell wall, flagella and cilia. Plant and animal cells are both EURKARYOTES. Plant cells have a cell wall outside of the cell membrane which gives the plant extra support so that the giant vacuole does not cause the cell to burst when the plant takes in lots of water. Plant cells also have a chloroplast so that these cells can photosynthesize. Animal cells are what we have! They contain a cell membrane, but NO cell wall. Animal cells and plant cells both have mitochondria, although we typically think of animal cells doing cellular respiration and therefore having lots of mitochondria, especially in muscle cells. 14. What is the formula for photosynthesis? Sunlight (radiant energy) + Water (H2O) + CO2 🡪 Glucose + ATP Energy + O2 15. Where does photosynthesis occur? In the CHLOROPLAST of PLANT cells 16. What organisms perform the process of photosynthesis? Mainly PLANT cells!! 17. Define cellular respiration: Cell respiration is how animals (like humans) but also plants take food and oxygen and convert it into ATP energy that the body can use. The formula is the opposite of photosynthesis because cell respiration and photosynthesis are reverse reactions that help both continue in a cycle. 18. Where does cellular respiration occur? In the mitochondria!!! Animal cells do this a lot, but plant cells also have mitochondria (not just chloroplasts) and therefore perform cell respiration to get energy as well! 19. What is a reactant and what is a product? A reactant is what goes INTO the reaction and a product is what comes OUT (gets made) during the reaction. Photosynthesis: Reactants (IN) are Sunlight (radiant energy), Water (H2O) and Carbon dioxide (CO2) Products (OUT) are Glucose and Oxygen (O2) Cellular respiration: Reactants (IN) are Glucose and Oxygen (O2) Products (OUT) are ATP energy (Chemical energy), Water (H2O) and Carbon dioxide (CO2) 20. Define: There are 2 types of cellular respiration. a. aerobic – respiration that USES OXYGEN and therefore is more efficient and produces A LOT more ATP b. anaerobic – respiration that DOES NOT USE OXYGEN and is therefore less efficient and produces LESS ATP 21. Anaerobic respiration is also known as: FERMENTATION 22. What is lactic acid? A type of acid that is produced when our body runs out of oxygen. Lactic acid fermentation happens when our muscles are overused and therefore run low on oxygen. This is why our muscles get sore when we run a long time. 23. Which organism does alcohol fermentation? Alcoholic fermentation is a type of fermentation (anaerobic respiration) that is done by yeast. This type of fermentation is how we make alcohol and can also be made from apple juice. 24. What is ATP?? The energy molecule that is made in cellular respiration. It is how our bodies temporarily store energy . 25. Which process produces more ATP? Aerobic or anaerobic respiration? Aerobic because it uses OXYGEN! 26. Which cell structure controls what is transported into or out of the cell? The plasma membrane controls what goes into and what leaves the cell. It maintains a balance on the outside of the cell and on the inside. Maintaining this balance is known as HOMEOSTASIS. 27. What is the plasma/cell membrane made up of? The plasma membrane is often called the phospholipid bilayer because it is made up of 2 layers (bilayer) of phospholipids which are a type of lipid/fat. 28. What does homeostasis mean? Maintaining equilibrium in our cells and our body. EX: maintaining equal amounts of glucose in and out of the cell, maintaining equal amounts of water in and out of the cell, maintaining temperature in our body, maintaining pH in our cells and body. 29. What are the 2 main types of transport? ACTIVE vs PASSIVE transport. 30. Define: a. active transport: REQUIRES ENERGY moves materials (usually big molecules) from LOW to HIGH concentration. (Going up a slide/up a mountain (from low to high) requires ENERGY). b. passive transport: DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY moves materials (usually small molecules) from HIGH to LOW concentration. (Going down a slide or mountain (going from high to low) DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY) c. diffusion: Type of PASSIVE transport movement of MOLECULES across a membrane. d. osmosis: Type of PASSIVE transport movement of WATER across a membrane e. semipermeable membrane: only lets SOME (semi) things through or across the membrane 31. Draw arrows to show which way water will move in each of the following situations: a. Salt inside the cell is 65% concentrated; and outside the cell salt is 40% concentrated. Water will move INTO the cell to try and balance out the saltiness since the cell is more salty in than outside. b. Sugar inside the cell is 27% concentrated and outside the cell is 80% concentrated. Water will move OUT of the cell to try and balance out the concentration since the cell is less concentrated in the cell than outside the cell. Goal 2: The learner will develop an understanding of the continuity of life and the changes of organisms over time. (Chs. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14) 32. Why is DNA so important to biology? DNA contains the code/instructions on how to make everything in our body and how everything should work. 33. Where is DNA located? In the nucleus, of course!! 34. Describe the structure of the DNA molecule. (structure means: what is it made up of?) It is made up of nucleotides and is therefore called a nucleic acid! A nucleotide is made up of 3 parts: a phosphate, a sugar (these 2 make up the backbone) and a nitrogen base (either A, T, C or G). 35. Name the nitrogen bases found in DNA. Which ones pair together in the DNA molecule? The four nitrogen bases are Adenine, Thymine, Guanine and Cytosine. A pairs with T and G pairs with C 36. What type of bond forms between the nitrogen bases in DNA? Hydrogen bonds connect the bases. Hydrogen bonds are weak which is helpful when DNA needs to unzip during DNA replication (DNA 🡪 copy of DNA) and Transcription (DNA 🡪 mRNA) 37. Describe the process of DNA replication. DNA replication is how we make more DNA. It happens during Interphase of the Cell Cycle. The DNA unzips down the middle and then nitrogen bases come and match up with either size and we end up with TWO IDENTICAL strands of DNA. 38. What is it called when there is a mistake during DNA replication? When there is a mistake during DNA replication, we call it a mutation! Mutations can be bad, neutral, or sometimes “good”. 39. What is one thing that can cause a mutation? A mutagen is anything like radiation or a chemical that can cause mutations. 40. What is the difference between a point mutation and a frame shift mutation? A point mutation affects just a single point in the DNA strand. It happens when a base is SWITCHED OUT. Out of all the mutations, it is typically the least damaging because it only affects 1 part. A frameshift mutation is just what it sounds like. A mutation that shifts the entire DNA sequence forward or backward. This happens when a base is DELETED OR INSERTED. Because it changes the entire protein sequence, it leads to big changes and therefore big problems. The earlier in the sequence a base is inserted or deleted, the worse the effect!! 41. List three differences between DNA and RNA: 1. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose and the sugar in RNA is ribose. 2. DNA is double stranded and RNA is single stranded. 3. DNA contains a Thymine (T) which matches with Adenine (A), but RNA contains Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T) 42. Describe the process of transcription and where it happens. ● Transcription is the first step of protein synthesis and happens in the Nucleus because this is where DNA is and we always start with DNA since it carries the instructions/code of life! ● In the process of transcription, DNA unzips and RNA nucleotides match up to create mRNA. ● mRNA then leaves the nucleus and travels to the ribosome. Meanwhile, DNA zips back up and stays put in the nucleus (DNA NEVER leaves the nucleus because it is too special and important!) 43. Describe the process of translation and where it happens. (study the diagram on page 294) ● Translation is the second step of protein synthesis and happens on the Ribosome because this is where we left off in the last step (mRNA was made in the nucleus and left to go to the ribosome!) ● The first thing that mRNA does when it gets to the ribosome is attach itself onto the ribosome. ● Then a tRNA brings an amino acid that matches the codon of the mRNA. ● The amino acids join up one by one as tRNA brings them to mRNA until finally you have a long strand of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. NOW YOU HAVE A PROTEIN! ● The protein then folds up into a special 3D shape and goes to do its job in the cell! 44. What is a codon? A codon is a set of 3 bases on the mRNA strand. During translation, each codon matches with an anticodon (which is a set of 3 bases on the tRNA). The codon matches up with an amino acid! This is why we always use the mRNA sequence to find the correct amino acids in the chart! 45. Compare and contrast Mitosis and Meiosis: There is a big blank because there is a lot of information!! Mitosis and Meiosis are 2 different ways that our body uses to make more new cells! (There are 2 different “categories” of cells in our body (somatic cells and gametes) and therefore 2 different ways that they divide to make more cells!) Mitosis Meiosis ASEXUAL 1 CELL DIVIDES INTO 2 IDENTICAL CELLS START WITH DIPLOID, END WITH DIPLOID THE WAY OUR SOMATIC CELLS DIVIDE SEXUAL 1 CELL DIVIDES INTO 4 “HALF CELLS” START WITH DIPLOID, END WITH 4 HAPLOID CELLS THE WAY OUR SEX CELLS (GAMETES) DIVIDE “MAKES IDENTICAL CELLS” “MAKES 2 CELLS” “MAKES DIFFERENT CELLS (GENETIC VARIATION)” “MAKES 4 CELLS” 46. What is fertilization? Draw a picture. Fertilization is when sperm and egg come together to form a zygote (baby!!) (Sperm + Egg) = 🡪 47. What is the difference between diploid and haploid? Diploid basically means “double”. All of our body cells have double (2n) the # of chromosomes as our gametes (sex cells) which are considered haploid and therefore only have “half” (n) the # of chromosomes. Every organism has a different # set of chromosomes. Humans have 46 chromosomes in their somatic (body cells) and therefore only half, or 23 chromosomes in each sex cell. If a cat has 80 chromosomes in their somatic cells, their gametes will only have 40 chromosomes, etc. 48. What is crossing over? Crossing over is when chromosomes “trade chunks of DNA” during meiosis. Therefore, crossing over CREATES GENETIC VARIATION!! 49. When does crossing over occur? Crossing over occurs during Meiosis when sex cells (gametes) are being made. 50. What’s the benefit of crossing over? One way that we get GENETIC DIVERSITY (AKA GENETIC VARIATION!) 51. What is the Law of Independent Assortment? How does it increase variation? This is the idea that alleles for each of our traits are inherited separately. It explains how you might get your mom’s brown hair, but not her freckles, etc. It means that brown hair is inherited on its own and freckles are inherited on their own, you don’t get one just because you get the other. Think of the baby lab and how you had to flip a coin for every single trait! GENETICS 52. Define: a. dominant – the trait that takes over or covers up the recessive trait (T) b. recessive – the trait that gets covered up (t) c. homozygous – “pure”; when a person has two of the SAME alleles (TT or tt) d. heterozygous – “hybrid”; when a person has two DIFFERENT alleles (Tt) e. genotype – the alleles or “letters” a person has (TT, Tt or tt) f. phenotype – the actual physical trait a person has (Tall or short); TT and Tt will show up as TALL and tt will show up as short 53. What is the difference between complete, incomplete and codominance? ● Complete Dominance: The dominant takes over the recessive COMPLETELY. If you have a black cow (BB) and a white cow (bb), the babies will all be black (Bb) because B is completely dominant over b. ● Incomplete Dominance: The dominant is INCOMPLETELY dominant over the recessive. This time if you have a black cow (BB) and a white cow (bb), the babies will be GREY (Bb) because B is not completely dominant and therefore b (white) shows through a little. ● Codominance: Co- means “together”, so now we no longer have a recessive type. We have 2 dominant types that are dominant “together”! So this time when you have a black cow (BB), the white cow will also have capital letters (WW) and the babies will all be BW and show up as Black and White Spotted Cows! 54. What is Sickle Cell Anemia? This is an example of a codominant disease. It is more common in African Americans, but it protects some people from malaria if the person is a carrier for sickle cell. It can cause severe pain because it the red blood cells are not round, but sickle shaped and therefore cannot carry oxygen properly throughout the body and can clump up in veins and arteries. 55. Sample Monohybrid Cross Question: In a genetics laboratory, two heterozygous tall plants are crossed. If tall is dominant over short, what are the expected phenotypic results? 56. What does it mean if a trait has multiple alleles? The trait has more than two alleles. (Instead of T vs t, now you have 3 or more completely different letters). This is how blood types work. 3 alleles: A, B and O. A and B are co-dominant but O is recessive. 57. Sample Blood Type (Multiple Allele) Question: Mr. Jones has blood type A and Mrs. Jones has blood type AB. What is the probability that they will have a child with blood type A if both of Mr. Jones’s parents were AB? 58. What is a polygenic trait? Traits that are controlled by many genes and therefore have LOTS of possibilities. Examples include skin color, hair color, eye color, height, etc. 59. Sample Sex-linked trait Question: Color blindness is a sex-linked recessive trait. A mother with normal color vision and a color blind father have a color blind daughter. Which of the following statements is correct? A All of their daughters will be color blind. B All of their sons will be color blind C All of their sons will have normal color vision. D The mother is a carrier of the color blindness gene. 60. What is hemophilia? Hemophilia is a sex linked recessive disease. A person with this disease has a problem where their blood does not clot and they keep bleeding even from small cuts and blood accumulates under their skin when they get bruises. 61. Describe cystic fibrosis. This is an autosomal RECESSIVE disease and is characterized by a person having a thick mucus in the lungs and digestive track. 62. Describe Huntington’s Disease. This is an autosomal DOMINANT disease in which a person has nerve damage and it results in death. 63. What is a Karyotype? A karyotype is a picture of someone’s chromosomes and is used to identify some genetic diseases. You can use it to look at chromosomal defects and you can also tell if a person is male (XY) or female (XX) by looking at a karyotype. 64. What is nondisjunction? Give 2 real-life examples that happen because of nondisjunction that we can see on a karyotype. ● Nondisjunction is when chromosomes do not separate correctly during meiosis. This results in a baby having either too few or too many chromosomes. ● One example we discussed in class was Down’s Syndrome (Trisomy 21). On a karyotype you can see that there are 3 chromosome pieces on the 21st pair instead of 2 like all the other chromosomes and therefore the person has 47 chromosomes total instead of the normal amount of 46. ● Turner’s Syndrome is another disorder we can see on a karyotype. This disease is also caused by nondisjunction, but in this case there are only a total of 45 chromosomes instead of the normal amount of 46 because the female is missing an X. Since she only has 1 X, we usually note it by “XO” because there is nothing (0) in the 2nd space where an X should be. 65. Describe the following genetic diseases: a. sickle-cell anemia – if you are a carrier (heterozygous) for this disease, you are RESISTANT TO MALARIA. Otherwise, if you have the disease, you will die due to the sickle cell shape of your red blood cells. “People who are heterozygous for sickle cell have some immunity to malaria. This favors the heterozygous phenotype and increases recessive allele frequency. b. colorblindness – sex-linked recessive c. cystic fibrosis- autosomal recessive d. hemophilia- sex-linked recessive e. Down Syndrome (trisomy 21)- three 21st chromosomes 66. Explain the interacting role of genetics and the environment: Sometimes the environment can play a role in our genetics. For example, although identical twins may have identical DNA and genes, over time they may grow to not only look different, but act different too. This may be because of what they eat, where they live, what they do, etc. We call these things environmental factors. If one twin eats unhealthier and does not exercise, she may develop diabetes, while the other twin does not. The role of genetics and the environment also explain how diabetes, asthma, heart or cardiovascular disease and cancer are affected. All traits depend both on genetic and environmental factors. Heredity and the environment interact to produce their effects. This means the way genes are expressed depends on the environment in which they act. 67. Describe how genetics and the environment affect: See answer to question 66 a. diabetes- A healthy diet and regular exercise keep weight at acceptable levels and reduce the risk of diabetes. People with a genetic predisposition to diabetes are particularly susceptible to weight gain and lack of exercise. b. cancer-Use of tobacco products increases of some cancers (chewing tobacco and mouth cancer; cigarettes and lung cancer). c. asthma68. What is a Pedigree? Be able to “read” autosomal dominant vs autosomal recessive vs sex-linked recessive pedigree. A pedigree is a family tree that shows how a family inherits their traits, but also how diseases are passed down. If a trait/disease is in EVERY GENERATION, it is a DOMINANT trait/disease. If a trait/disease is in only a FEW PEOPLE and found in males and females EQUALLY, it is a RECESSIVE trait/disease. If a trait/disease is in only a few people and found in MOSTLY BOYS, it is a SEX-LINKED RECESSIVE trait/disease. BIOTECHNOLOGY 69. What is the Human Genome Project? A project that decoded all of the 3 billion bases (AGCTs) in our human DNA. The purpose of this was to help us locate genetic diseases in our DNA and to hopefully one day find a cure. However, as we saw in class, knowing where each gene is on our entire DNA strand could also lead to “designer” babies like in the movie GATTACA. 70. How can DNA technology allow us to: For answer a-c think about DNA fingerprinting. This is when we cut up our DNA using restriction enzymes and run It through a gel to get a band pattern of DNA. On the gel, the short pieces of DNA run the fastest and go farther toward the bottom, while the long pieces of DNA are bigger and therefore slower, so they stay toward the top. When we “read’ the gel, we compare the bands and can use this to find a criminal (forensic science), find relatives and or parents (baby daddy’s are found this way) and also to compare how close different organisms are in terms of evolution. a. Identify an individual? b. Identify a person’s parents? c. Investigate a crime scene? 71. What is a transgenic organism and give an example? A transgenic organism is also known as GMO’s or Genetically Modified Organisms. We can make these by cutting out a piece of DNA from one organism using restriction enzymes and put this piece into another organism. This is the idea behind “genetic engineering”. Using genes to engineer new organisms. (Like making glow-in-the-dark-cats) 72. What is cloning? Making an identical individual. Take the nucleus of a body cell (somatic cell) and put it into an egg. In the future, this could allow us to bring back extinct or endangered species. 73. What is gene therapy? Cutting out (using restriction enzymes of course) a “diseased” portion of DNA in a person and replacing it with a piece of “good” DNA using a virus. This is well on its way to being used to cure genetic diseases like hemophilia or sickle cell anemia. 74. How can genetic technology allow us to create human insulin using bacteria? Since bacteria replicate so quickly, we can take the gene for human insulin and cut it out using restriction enzymes and then put it into a bacterial plasmid DNA, grow it up by allowing bacteria to replicate and now we have lots and lots of human insulin that we can make into medicine for diabetics to use. 75. What is gel electrophoresis? Use restriction enzymes to cut DNA into different sized pieces and then “run” these pieces on a gel with longer pieces moving slower than shorter pieces. We end up with a “gel” that we can use to compare different DNA. EVOLUTION 76. What is the idea behind spontaneous generation? The idea of spontaneous generation is that life comes from nonlife. EX: meat making maggots—Francesco Redi disproved this with an experiment where he put meat in covered vs non-covered jars and saw that maggots only formed when flies were able to land on the meat. 77. Explain Miller and Urey’s hypothesis (study diagram on p. 382) Recognize the diagram! Miller and Urey did an experiment to see if they could prove Oparin’s hypothesis. They mixed gases and water together and zapped it with electricity. Although this didn’t produce life, it DID produce some of the macromolecules like amino acids and nucleic acids that are necessary for life to form which was a huge step in the right direction for evolutionary scientists. 78. What is the idea of endosymbiosis? AKA the “inside relationship” This is the theory that prokaryotes ate other prokaryotes but instead of dying, these eaten prokaryotes developed a mutualistic relationship with the prokaryote that ate them. They became organelles!! AND now that the prokaryotes had organelles, they were able to evolve into Eukaryotes. Proof—the mitochondria and the chloroplast have their own DNA separate from the nuclear DNA. Also, the mitochondria and chloroplast reproduce themselves. 79. What can we infer from the fossil record? Where do you find the oldest/youngest fossils? The fossil record can be used for evidence of evolution because fossils show how organisms changed through time and can show evolutionary relationships. The oldest fossils will be lower and the youngest fossils will be closer to the top of the Earth’s crust. 80. Define and give an example: a. adaptive radiation- when several different species of organisms evolve from one common ancestor b. vestigial structures- Anatomical structure that is found in an organism but no longer used by that organism. EX: appendix in humans; coccyx in humans (tailbone); legs on a snake, etc. 81. Define natural selection. “survival of the fittest” = the organism that can best reproduce gets to pass on more of its genes and traits. A species will adapt to its environment or it will die. The organism with the best adaptations to the specific environment will reproduce the most and pass on its adaptation to future generations. A population can change due to natural selection. A classic example is of the dark and light moths. At fist there were more light colored moths on light trees. But when the pollution came and caused the trees to look darker, the light ones were easier to see and therefore got eaten, but the dark ones survived and therefore passed their “dark color” gene on to their offspring. Over time, as the trees got darker, so did the moths. 82. How are variation and natural selection related? Variation, or differences in organisms allow for natural selection to take place. See Answer the Question 81 for more info. 83. What is reproductive isolation? If one organism is separated for any reason, over time they will evolve based on the variation in traits and the environment each one lives in until one day they will accumulate enough change that they will be unable to reproduce with each other even though they started as the same species. 84. Describe Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection: See Answer to Question 81. 85. Define the following and explain how they are related to natural selection: a. pesticide resistance – Due to natural selection our pests are becoming resistant to pesticides b. antibiotic resistance – Due to natural selection our bacteria are becoming resistant to antibiotics (medicines). In both instances of resistance, only the weak ones get killed off which leaves the strong and resistant ones to reproduce and over time we are left with only the strongest ones and our pesticides and antibiotics are not strong enough to kill them. Goal 3: The learner will develop an understanding of the unity and diversity of life. (Ch. 18-22, 26 – 33, & 35 – 40) 86. How does our modern classification system show the evolutionary relationship among organisms? The modern classification system that we use today was developed by Carolus Linnaeus and divides organisms into 8 different levesl. (Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species) –going from broadest to most specific. 87. What is binomial nomenclature? Binomial nomenclature is a 2 name naming system. Every organism has a scientific name which is made up of the genus+species. Humans are called “Homo sapiens” . Homo is the genus and sapiens is the species. 88. Why does the classification system keep changing? With DNA technology, and more knowledge about DNA, we are learning that some organisms are closely related that we did not believe to be the case before. Comparing DNA and amino acid sequences is the best, most specific way to compare to organisms to see just how closely related they are. 89. What is a dichotomous key. Do you know how to do one? A dichotomous key is like a scavenger hunt to found out the scientific name of an organism. PLANTS!! (We talked about plants all throughout the semester. Now let’s put it all together for review. 90. What is a vascular plant? A vascular plant includes ferns, conifers, angiosperms (flowering plants) and gymnosperms (cone-bearing plants). All these plants contain a system of “tubes” through which water and nutrients flows throughout the plant…similar to the cardiovascular system in a human in which blood flows through veins and delivers nutrients to the body. 91. What is the difference between xylem and phloem? Xylem: carries WATER up the plant Phloem: carries glucose/sugar down the plant (think phlo and food both start with fff sound) 92. What is pollination versus fertilization versus germination? Pollination: when pollen lands on the female part of the flower. Often, a pollinator (bird, bee, insect) helps with this. Fertilization: when the sperm of a plant reaches the plant’s ovary. This results in a seed. Germination: when a seed begins to grow into a seedling. Goal 5: The learner will have an understanding of behavior of organisms resulting from genetics & environment. 93. Give an example of how an organism might change their behavior to adapt to their environment. 94. Define (YOU MAY NEED TO USE THE INTERNET/TEXTBOOK): but you have this in your notes!!! a. chemotaxis: Organism moves away or toward “food” (amino acids, nurients, etc.) b. phototaxis: Organism moves away or toward light. (Away: to hide; Toward: to get light/food) c. imprintingFollowing the first organism the baby sees after hatching. Usually the mother, but sometimes strange things happen. Like all adaptations, this one aids in the survival of the organism because it helps to protect the young. d. instincts- AKA innate (EX: suckling, phototaxis, migration, estivation, hibernation.) The organism does not LEARN these behaviors, they are instinctive!! 95. Explain how certain animal behaviors such as courtship and other behaviors may have evolved. Courtship and similar behaviors have evolved for the benefit of helping organisms of the same species find each other for mating. This helps in the survival and reproduction of organisms since attractions and mating happen more efficiently and quicker. 96. What is the difference between innate vs learned behavior? Innate is an instinct; no one/nothing teaches the organism to do these things, rather they are born knowing to do this. Examples: Suckling, phototaxis, migration, estivation, hibernation, etc. Learned behaviors must be “learned”. Examples: Habituation, imprinting, conditioned response, territoriality, courtship dances, communication (pheromones), etc. 97. Make flashcards for all the different behaviors and bring them to class after break. Extra: 98. What are the 2 life cycles for viruses? Lytic cycle: the virus injects its DNA into the cell and the cell starts making that virus inside of itself. Soon the cell will burst open or lyse, releasing lots of virus into the body. Lysogenic cycle: the virus DNA is inserted into the host DNA and then just waits. It could stay in the lysogenic cycle for a short or long time. Eventually it will turn into the lytic cycle when the cell starts to make new virus. (This is how cold sores (herpes) work—they show up sometimes, but you always have the virus inside you. 99. Read through the different parts of the immune system. 100. What is the difference between active immunity and passive immunity? Active immunity happens when the immune system responds to an antigen by producing antibodies. This is immunity or resistance that a person has because they have ACTUALLY HAD THE DISEASE. CAN ALSO GET THIS FROM A VACCINE Passive immunity is when antibodies are put directly into a person. This is when you are IMMUNE from a virus that you NEVER ACTUALLY HAD. Mothers can pass this on through their breastmilk. Objective 2.01 2.03 2.06 3.02 Know the Contributions of These Scientists: Scientist Contribution James Watson and Francis Crick Gregor Mendel Charles Darwin Carolus Linnaeus Father of Genetics Below, please write down any questions that come up or any spots that you realized you had a lot of confusion about. This way I can help you or point you in the right direction during review week when you come back!!