Chapter 9 Lifespan Development

CHAPTER 9: LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT 9.1 WHAT IS LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT - - Physical developmentinvolvesgrowthandchangesinthebodyandbrain,the senses,motorskills,andhealthandwellness. Cognitive developmentinvolveslearning,attention,memory,language, thinking,reasoning,andcreativity. Psychosocial developmentinvolvesemotions,personality,andsocial relationships. normative approachThisapproachasks,“Whatisnormaldevelopment?” developmental milestones(e.g.,crawling,walking,writing,dressing,naming colors,speakinginsentences,andstartingpuberty). Continuous developmentviewsdevelopmentasacumulativeprocess, graduallyimprovingonexistingskills discontinuousbelievethatdevelopmenttakesplaceinuniquestages:Itoccurs atspecifictimesorages. nature(biologyandgenetics),orarewewhowearebecauseofnurture(our environmentandculture)? 9.2 LIFESPAN THEORIES - - - SigmundFreud(1856–1939)believedthatpersonalitydevelopsduringearly childhood.ForFreud,childhoodexperiencesshapeourpersonalitiesand behaviorasadults.Freudvieweddevelopmentasdiscontinuous;hebelieved thateachofusmustpassthroughaseriesofstagesduringchildhood,andthatif welackpropernurturanceandparentingduringastage,wemaybecomestuck, orfixated,inthatstage. psychosexual development.AccordingtoFreud,children’spleasure-seeking urgesarefocusedonadifferentareaofthebody,calledanerogenouszone,at eachofthefivestagesofdevelopment:oral,anal,phallic,latency,andgenital. Erikson’spsychosocial development theoryemphasizesthesocialnatureof ourdevelopmentratherthanitssexualnature.WhileFreudbelievedthat personalityisshapedonlyinchildhood,Eriksonproposedthatpersonality developmenttakesplaceallthroughthelifespan.Eriksonsuggestedthathowwe interactwithothersiswhataffectsoursenseofself,orwhathecalledtheego identity. Stage Age (years) Developmental Task 1 0–1 Trustvs.mistrust Trust(ormistrust)thatbasicneeds,such asnourishmentandaffection,willbemet 2 1–3 Autonomyvs. shame/doubt Developasenseofindependenceinmany tasks 3 3–6 Initiativevs.guilt Takeinitiativeonsomeactivities—may developguiltwhenunsuccessfulor boundariesoverstepped 4 7–11 Industryvs. inferiority Developself-confidenceinabilitieswhen competentorsenseofinferioritywhennot 5 12–18 Identityvs. confusion Experimentwithanddevelopidentityand roles 6 19–29 Intimacyvs. isolation Establishintimacyandrelationshipswith others 7 30–64 Generativityvs. stagnation Contributetosocietyandbepartofa family 8 65– Integrityvs.despair Assessandmakesenseoflifeand meaningofcontributions - - Description Jean Piaget // Histheoryofcognitivedevelopmentholdsthatourcognitiveabilities developthroughspecificstages,whichexemplifiesthediscontinuityapproachto development.Asweprogresstoanewstage,thereisadistinctshiftinhowwe thinkandreason. Schemataareconcepts(mentalmodels)thatareusedtohelpuscategorizeand interpretinformation. assimilationiswhentheytakeininformationthatiscomparabletowhatthey alreadyknow. Accommodationdescribeswhentheychangetheirschematabasedonnew information. Age (years) Stage Description Developmental issues 0–2 Sensorimotor Worldexperiencedthrough Objectpermanence Age (years) Stage Description Developmental issues sensesandactions Strangeranxiety Pretendplay Egocentrism Language development 2–6 Preoperational Usewordsandimagesto representthings,butlacklogical reasoning 7–11 Concrete operational Understandconcreteeventsand analogieslogically;perform arithmeticaloperations Conservation Mathematical transformations 12– Formal operational Formaloperations Utilizeabstractreasoning Abstractlogic Moralreasoning - - - - - thesensorimotorstage,whichlastsfrombirthtoabout2yearsold.Duringthis stage,childrenlearnabouttheworldthroughtheirsensesandmotorbehavior. object permanence,whichistheunderstandingthatevenifsomethingisoutof sight,itstillexists thepreoperational stage,whichisfromapproximately2to7yearsold.Inthis stage,childrencanusesymbolstorepresentwords,images,andideas,whichis whychildreninthisstageengageinpretendplay. conservation,whichistheideathatevenifyouchangetheappearanceof something,itisstillequalinsizeaslongasnothinghasbeenremovedoradded. egocentrism,whichmeansthatthechildisnotabletotaketheperspectiveof others.Achildatthisstagethinksthateveryonesees,thinks,andfeelsjustas theydo. concrete operational stage,whichoccursfromabout7to11yearsold.Inthis stage,childrencanthinklogicallyaboutreal(concrete)events;theyhaveafirm graspontheuseofnumbersandstarttoemploymemorystrategies.Theycan performmathematicaloperationsandunderstandtransformations,suchas additionistheoppositeofsubtraction,andmultiplicationistheoppositeof division. reversibility,whichmeansthatobjectscanbechangedandthenreturnedback totheiroriginalformorcondition. formal operational stage,whichisfromaboutage11toadulthood.Whereas childrenintheconcreteoperationalstageareabletothinklogicallyonlyabout concreteevents,childrenintheformaloperationalstagecanalsodealwith abstractideasandhypotheticalsituations.Childreninthisstagecanuseabstract thinkingtoproblemsolve,lookatalternativesolutions,andtestthesesolutions. Lev Vygotsky // suggestedthathumandevelopmentisrootedinone’sculture.A child’ssocialworld,forexample,formsthebasisfortheformationoflanguage andthought.Thelanguageonespeaksandthewaysapersonthinksabout thingsisdependentonone’sculturalbackground.Vygotskyalsoconsidered - - historicalinfluencesaskeytoone’sdevelopment.Hewasinterestedinthe processofdevelopmentandtheindividual’sinteractionswiththeirenvironment Lawrence Kohlberg // extendeduponthefoundationthatPiagetbuiltregarding cognitivedevelopment.Kohlbergbelievedthatmoraldevelopment,likecognitive development,followsaseriesofstages.Todevelopthistheory,Kohlbergposed moraldilemmastopeopleofallages,andthenheanalyzedtheiranswerstofind evidenceoftheirparticularstageofmoraldevelopment. stages of moral reasoningAccordingtoKohlberg,anindividualprogresses fromthecapacityforpre-conventionalmorality(beforeage9)tothecapacityfor conventionalmorality(earlyadolescence),andtowardattainingpostconventionalmorality(onceformaloperationalthoughtisattained),whichonlya fewfullyachieve. 9.3 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT • Germinal Stage (weeks 1-2) - Conceptionoccurswhenspermfertilizesaneggandformsazygote zygotebeginsasaone-cellstructurethatiscreatedwhenaspermandegg merge. - Thisprocessofcelldivisioniscalledmitosis. • Embryonic Stage (weeks 3-8) - Afterthezygotedividesforabout7–10daysandhas150cells,ittravelsdown thefallopiantubesandimplantsitselfintheliningoftheuterus.Upon implantation,thismulti-cellularorganismiscalledanembryo - placentaisastructureconnectedtotheuterusthatprovidesnourishmentand oxygenfromthemothertothedevelopingembryoviatheumbilicalcord. • Fetal Stages (weeks 9-40) - Atthisstage,thefetusisaboutthesizeofakidneybeanandbeginstotakeon therecognizableformofahumanbeingasthe“tail”beginstodisappear. - From9–12weeks,thesexorgansbegintodifferentiate.Atabout16weeks,the fetusisapproximately4.5incheslong.Fingersandtoesarefullydeveloped,and fingerprintsarevisible.Bythetimethefetusreachesthesixthmonthof development(24weeks),itweighsupto1.4pounds. - - receivesprenatal care,whichismedicalcareduringpregnancythatmonitors thehealthofboththemotherandthefetus teratogenisanyenvironmentalagent—biological,chemical,orphysical—that causesdamagetothedevelopingembryoorfetus. Facial Feature Potential Effect of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Headsize Below-averageheadcircumference Facial Feature Potential Effect of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Eyes Smallerthanaverageeyeopening,skinfoldsatcornersofeyes Nose Lownasalbridge,shortnose Midface Smallerthanaveragemidfacesize Lipandphiltrum Thinupperlip,indistinctphiltrum - - Eachorganofthefetusdevelopsduringaspecificperiodinthepregnancy, calledthecritical or sensitive period newborn reflexes:inbornautomaticresponsestoparticularformsofstimulation. Motor skillsrefertoourabilitytomoveourbodiesandmanipulateobjects. Fine motor skillsfocusonthemusclesinourfingers,toes,andeyes,and enablecoordinationofsmallactions(e.g.,graspingatoy,writingwithapencil, andusingaspoon). Gross motor skillsfocusonlargemusclegroupsthatcontrolourarmsandlegs andinvolvelargermovements(e.g.,balancing,running,andjumping). Developmental Milestones, Ages 2–5 Years Age (years) Physical Personal/Social Language Cognitive 2 Kicksa ball;walks upand downstairs Playsalongside otherchildren; copiesadults Pointsto objectswhen named;puts2– 4words togetherina sentence Sortsshapes andcolors; follows2-step instructions 3 Climbsand runs; pedals tricycle Takesturns; expressesmany emotions;dresses self Namesfamiliar things;uses pronouns Playsmake believe;works toyswithparts (levers,handles) 4 Catches balls;uses scissors Preferssocialplay tosoloplay;knows likesandinterests Knowssongs andrhymesby memory Namescolors andnumbers; beginswriting letters Hopsand swings; usesfork andspoon Distinguishesreal frompretend;likes topleasefriends Speaksclearly; usesfull sentences 5 Countsto10or higher;prints somelettersand copiesbasic Age (years) Physical Personal/Social Language Cognitive shapes - - - - - Attachmentisalong-standingconnectionorbondwithothers. secure baseisaparentalpresencethatgivesthechildasenseofsafetyashe exploreshissurroundings. Themostcommontypeofattachment—alsoconsideredthehealthiest—is calledsecure attachment.Inthistypeofattachment,thetoddlerprefershis parentoverastranger. avoidant attachment,thechildisunresponsivetotheparent,doesnotusethe parentasasecurebase,anddoesnotcareiftheparentleaves. resistant attachment,childrentendtoshowclingybehavior,butthentheyreject theattachmentfigure’sattemptstointeractwiththem disorganized attachmentbehavedoddlyintheStrangeSituation.Theyfreeze, runaroundtheroominanerraticmanner,ortrytorunawaywhenthecaregiver returns authoritarian style,theparentplaceshighvalueonconformityandobedience. permissive styleofparenting,thekidsruntheshowandanythinggoes. uninvolved styleofparenting,theparentsareindifferent,uninvolved,and sometimesreferredtoasneglectful. Temperamentreferstoinnatetraitsthatinfluencehowonethinks,behaves,and reactswiththeenvironment. Adolescenceistheperiodofdevelopmentthatbeginsatpubertyandendsat emergingadulthood,which adrenarcheandgonadarche,thematuringoftheadrenalglandsandsex glands,respectively. Primary sexual characteristicsareorgansspecificallyneededforreproduction, liketheuterusandovariesinfemalesandtestesinmales. Secondary sexual characteristicsarephysicalsignsofsexualmaturationthat donotdirectlyinvolvesexorgans,suchasdevelopmentofbreastsandhipsin females,anddevelopmentoffacialhairandadeepenedvoiceinmales. Femalesexperiencemenarche,thebeginningofmenstrualperiods,usually around12–13yearsold malesexperiencespermarche,thefirstejaculation,around13–14yearsold. Cognitive empathy,alsoknownastheory-of-mind(whichwediscussedearlier withregardtoegocentrism),relatestotheabilitytotaketheperspectiveofothers andfeelconcernforothers Aswegetolder,socioemotional selectivity theorysuggeststhatoursocial supportandfriendshipsdwindleinnumber,butremainasclose,ifnotmoreclose thaninourearlieryears 9.4 DEATH AND DYING - health care proxy,whichappointsaspecificpersontomakemedicaldecisionsfor youifyouareunabletospeakforyourself.People’sdesireforlivingwillsandDNRs areofteninfluencedbytheirreligion,culture,andupbringing. -Kübler-Rossdevelopedafive-stagemodelofgriefasawaytoexplainthis process.Denial,anger,bargaining,depression,acceptance accommodation adjustmentofaschemabychangingaschemetoaccommodatenewinformation differentfromwhatwasalreadyknown adolescence periodofdevelopmentthatbeginsatpubertyandendsatearlyadulthood adrenarche maturingoftheadrenalglands advance directive awrittenlegaldocumentthatdetailsspecificinterventionsapersonwants(see livingwill) assimilation adjustmentofaschemabyaddinginformationsimilartowhatisalreadyknown attachment long-standingconnectionorbondwithothers authoritarian parenting style parentsplaceahighvalueonconformityandobedience,areoftenrigid,and expresslittlewarmthtothechild authoritative parenting style parentsgivechildrenreasonabledemandsandconsistentlimits,expresswarmth andaffection,andlistentothechild’spointofview avoidant attachment characterizedbychild’sunresponsivenesstoparent,doesnotusetheparentas asecurebase,anddoesnotcareifparentleaves cognitive development domainoflifespandevelopmentthatexamineslearning,attention,memory, language,thinking,reasoning,andcreativity cognitive empathy abilitytotaketheperspectiveofothersandtofeelconcernforothers conception whenaspermfertilizesaneggandformsazygote concrete operational stage thirdstageinPiaget’stheoryofcognitivedevelopment;fromabout7to11years old,childrencanthinklogicallyaboutreal(concrete)events conservation ideathatevenifyouchangetheappearanceofsomething,itisstillequalinsize, volume,ornumberaslongasnothingisaddedorremoved continuous development viewthatdevelopmentisacumulativeprocess:graduallyimprovingonexisting skills critical (sensitive) period timeduringfetalgrowthwhenspecificpartsororgansdevelop developmental milestone approximateagesatwhichchildrenreachspecificnormativeevents discontinuous development viewthatdevelopmenttakesplaceinuniquestages,whichhappenatspecific timesorages disorganized attachment characterizedbythechild’soddbehaviorwhenfacedwiththeparent;typeof attachmentseenmostoftenwithkidsthatareabused do not resuscitate (DNR) alegaldocumentstatingthatifapersonstopsbreathingortheirheartstops, medicalpersonnelsuchasdoctorsandnursesarenottotakestepstoreviveor resuscitatethepatient egocentrism preoperationalchild’sdifficultyintakingtheperspectiveofothers embryo multi-cellularorganisminitsearlystagesofdevelopment emerging adulthood newlydefinedperiodoflifespandevelopmentfrom18yearsoldtothemid-20s; youngpeoplearetakinglongertocompletecollege,getajob,getmarried,and startafamily fine motor skills useofmusclesinfingers,toes,andeyestocoordinatesmallactions formal operational stage finalstageinPiaget’stheoryofcognitivedevelopment;fromage11andup, childrenareabletodealwithabstractideasandhypotheticalsituations gonadarche maturingofthesexglands gross motor skills useoflargemusclegroupstocontrolarmsandlegsforlargebodymovements health care proxy alegaldocumentthatappointsaspecificpersontomakemedicaldecisionsfora patientiftheyareunabletospeakforthemselves hospice servicethatprovidesadeathwithdignity;painmanagementinahumaneand comfortableenvironment;usuallyoutsideofahospitalsetting living will awrittenlegaldocumentthatdetailsspecificinterventionsapersonwants;may includehealthcareproxy menarche beginningofmenstrualperiod;around12–13yearsold mitosis processofcelldivision motor skills abilitytomoveourbodyandmanipulateobjects nature genesandbiology newborn reflexes inbornautomaticresponsetoaparticularformofstimulationthatallhealthy babiesarebornwith normative approach studyofdevelopmentusingnorms,oraverageages,whenmostchildrenreach specificdevelopmentalmilestones nurture environmentandculture object permanence ideathatevenifsomethingisoutofsight,itstillexists permissive parenting style parentsmakefewdemandsandrarelyusepunishment physical development domainoflifespandevelopmentthatexaminesgrowthandchangesinthebody andbrain,thesenses,motorskills,andhealthandwellness placenta structureconnectedtotheuterusthatprovidesnourishmentandoxygentothe developingbaby prenatal care medicalcareduringpregnancythatmonitorsthehealthofboththemotherand thefetus preoperational stage secondstageinPiaget’stheoryofcognitivedevelopment;fromages2to7, childrenlearntousesymbolsandlanguagebutdonotunderstandmental operationsandoftenthinkillogically primary sexual characteristics organsspecificallyneededforreproduction psychosexual development processproposedbyFreudinwhichpleasure-seekingurgesfocusondifferent erogenouszonesofthebodyashumansmovethroughfivestagesoflife psychosocial development domainoflifespandevelopmentthatexaminesemotions,personality,andsocial relationships psychosocial development processproposedbyEriksoninwhichsocialtasksaremasteredashumans movethrougheightstagesoflifefrominfancytoadulthood resistant attachment characterizedbythechild’stendencytoshowclingybehaviorandrejectionofthe parentwhentheyattempttointeractwiththechild reversibility principlethatobjectscanbechanged,butthenreturnedbacktotheiroriginal formorcondition schema (plural=schemata)concept(mentalmodel)thatisusedtohelpuscategorize andinterpretinformation secondary sexual characteristics physicalsignsofsexualmaturationthatdonotdirectlyinvolvesexorgans secure attachment characterizedbythechildusingtheparentasasecurebasefromwhichto explore secure base parentalpresencethatgivestheinfant/toddlerasenseofsafetyastheyexplore theirsurroundings sensorimotor stage firststageinPiaget’stheoryofcognitivedevelopment;frombirththroughage2,a childlearnsabouttheworldthroughsensesandmotorbehavior socioemotional selectivity theory socialsupport/friendshipsdwindleinnumber,butremainasclose,ifnotmore closethaninearlieryears spermarche firstmaleejaculation stage of moral reasoning processproposedbyKohlberg;humansmovethroughthreestagesofmoral development temperament innatetraitsthatinfluencehowonethinks,behaves,andreactswiththe environment teratogen biological,chemical,orphysicalenvironmentalagentthatcausesdamagetothe developingembryoorfetus uninvolved parenting style parentsareindifferent,uninvolved,andsometimesreferredtoasneglectful;they don’trespondtothechild’sneedsandmakerelativelyfewdemands zygote structurecreatedwhenaspermandeggmergeatconception;beginsasasingle cellandrapidlydividestoformtheembryoandplacenta