Memory • Learning that persists over time • Information that has been acquired and stored and can be retrieved Measuring Retention • Recall • Retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time • Recognition • Identifying items previously learned • Multiple-choice tests your recognition • Relearning • Learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or a later time Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) • Relearning and memory researcher JIH BAZ FUB YOX SUJ XIR DAX LEQ VUM PID KEL WAV TUV ZOF GEK HIW Memory Models • Encode • Get information into our brain • Store • Retain that information • Retrieve • Later get that information back out Information-Processing Model (Connectionism) • First record to-be remembered information as fleeting sensory memory • Next, we process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal • Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval Working Memory • Alan Baddeley (2002) extended our understanding of seeing the brains as an active “scratch pad” • System of for holding information in mind and working on it • Heredity is believed to a contributing factor to a person’s working memory • Stress and mental fatigue can reduce working memory capacity (Garrison et al., 2019) Eye-Screem Encoding Memories • Dual-Track Memory • Effortful processing • Explicit memories • Automatic processing • Implicit memories Automatic Processing • Space: How certain materials appears, visualizing location • Time: Unintentionally noting the sequence of time, retracing steps • Frequency: Effortlessly keep track of how often things happen (e.g., I’ve run into her 3 times today!) Effortful Processing • Learning new skills that then become automatic • At first effortful but becomes automatic overtime • Reading, Driving, Texting, Speaking a new language .citamotua emoceb nac gnissecorp luftroffE Sensory Memory • Iconic Memory: a fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli • Echoic Memory: fleeting memory for auditory stimuli Short-Term Memory • We can story about seven pieces of information (Miller, 1956) • Varies by task • Remember about six letters and five words Effortful Processing Strategies • Chunking • Organizing into familiar, manageable units • Mnemonics • Memory aid uses vivid imagery • Hierarchies • Broad concepts divided and subdivide into narrower concepts and facts Spacing Effects • Massed practice • Produce speedy short-term learning and an inflated feeling of confidence • Distributed practice • Produces better long-term recall • After you’ve studied for a long time, further study becomes inefficient • Distribute practice through repeated self-testing through testing effect Levels of Processing • Shallow processing • Encoding on an elementary level (e.g., their vs. there) • Deep processing • Encoding semantically based on meaning Identifying items previously learned is best described as ____________________ Recognition, Recall, or Relearning Learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or a later time ____________________ Recognition, Recall, or Relearning Retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness is ____________________ Recognition, Recall, or Relearning Jessie is recalling and telling and a story about her trip to Utah to her mother. Jessie is use what type of memories? Semantic memories or Episodic memories? Stress does not impact working memory True or False? Easily visualizing where you store your contacts in your bathroom is___________. Automatic Processing or Effortful Processing Dylan attaches images of his elementary school to help him remember the order of his friend’s phone numbers. He’s using which memory method: Chunking, Mnemonics, or Hierarchies? Ashlyn memories information by thinking about umbrella terms and then the ideas that go underneath those umbrella terms. She’s using which memory device? Chunking, Mnemonics, or Hierarchies? Retaining Information • Semantic memories • Facts and general knowledge • Episodic • Experienced events • Hippocampus • Temporal lobe akin to a “save’’ button • Memory consolidation to the cortex for storage Flashbulb Memories • Emotion-triggered hormonal changes explain why we remember exciting, shocking, or emotionally charged events better Memory Retrieval • Priming • Wakening of associations • Example: After hearing the word rabbit, you’re more likely to spell hair as HARE Context-Dependent Memory • Putting yourself back in the context where you earlier experienced something can prime your memory retrieval • Encoding Specificity Principle • Specific cues will effectively trigger a memory State-Dependent Memory • What we learn in one state will be more easily recalled again in the state • Mood congruent • Emotions that accompany good or bad events become retrieval cues Serial Position Effect • Rehearsal of more previous events may be remembered better than less recent or holes between the two may exist • Recency effect • Recalling the last items • Primacy effect • Recalling the first items Forgetting • Anterograde amnesia- unable to form new conscious memories • Retrograde amnesia-unable to remember the past Memory Loss • Encoding Failure • Working/short-term memory does not encode to long-term memory • Storage Decay • Forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off • Retrieval Failure • Not necessarily forgetting, but unable to retrieve • Interference • Proactive: prior learning disrupts new information • Retroactive: new learning disrupts your recall of old information Motivated Forgetting • Many have proposes that traumatic memories are often repressed • However, increasing numbers of memory researchers believe that repression rarely occurs • Victims of trauma often recall events in vivid details • For example, victims of sexual assault may easily forget neutral words, but not words related to assault Memory Construction Errors • Memories undergo constant revision and may get reconsolidated incorrectly • Misinformation effects • Exposed to subtly misleading information déjà vu (already seen) • Seems to be familiarity with a stimulus and our uncertainty if we have encountered it before Discerning True and False Memories • We can not be sure whether a memory is real by how it feels • Our perceptual illusions may seem like real perceptions and unreal memories feel real Children’s Eyewitness Recall • Geci & Bruck, 1993; 1995 have led to awareness how easily children’s memories can be molded • Asked 3-year-plds to show on anatomically correct dolls where a pediatrician had touched them. • Of the children who had not received a genital exam, 55% of them pointed to genital areas Eyewitness Accuracy • Heavily influenced by our tendency to recall faces of our own race more accurately than faces of other races • Among criminal suspects exonerated with DNA evidence after eyewitness misidentification, nearly half were falsely accused after a cross-racial misidentification (Innocence Project, 2019) We are likely to remember emotionallycharged memories more. True or False? Ever since Jeff learned his new phone number, he is unable to recall his old phone number. What type of interference is this? Retroactive or Proactive? Of the following stages, where do we have the MOST bits of information? Do we have a tendency to have more information stores in working memory or longterm memory? Casey recalls very vividly going to the race car track with his father. He remembers his dad wearing a green shirt, but his dad insists that he was wearing a yellow shirt. What is likely happening? Once a memory is formed, it is unlikely that it will ever change. True or False? Ever since her car accident, Trinity is unable to remember family members. She is suffering from: Anterograde amnesia or Retrograde amnesia? https://www.psychologistworld.com/memory/test -2

Memory Psychology Notes

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