1. A psychologist compares the attitudes of students and their parents at approximately the same time. What type of research is this? A. Longitudinal *B. Cross-sectional C. Single-blind D. Double-blind % Correct: 84.0909090909091 Comments: This question is referencing the different mediums through which developmental psychology research can be conducted. Since this study is attempting to compare two different age groups at the same time, the study is defined as a cross-sectional study. 2. Which of these best describes Piaget’s view of children’s cognitive development? A. Children have to develop socially and emotionally before they develop cognitively. B. Children’s cognitive development depends mostly on memorization. *C. Children’s thinking is qualitatively different from that of adults. D. Children think like adults, except that they are slower and less confident. % Correct: 60.2272727272727 Comments: Jean Piaget was one of the first psychologists to study the cognitive changes that we undergo as we develop from infants to adults. Piaget contended that the world that we knew changed as we grew into adults. In essence, the rules that we used to predict our world and interact within it were developing and constantly updating as we encountered new problems and challenges to our past rules. 3. Which of Piaget’s terms means applying an old schema to a new object or problem? A. Concrete operations B. Accommodation *C. Assimilation D. Formal operations % Correct: 45.4545454545455 Comments: This was a definition question from Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It references the choices that children face when they encounter new information in their environment. Piaget contended that children have two options when they face new information, they can accommodate, which means that they will change their schemas. Or, they can assimilate, which means that they will apply their past schemas to the new information. 4. How might Piaget determine whether a child’s thinking is egocentric? A. Ask the child to share a bag of candies with other children. B. Watch which other children, if any, the child imitates. C. Tell the child not to play with his or her favorite toy. *D. Ask how a pile of blocks would look from a different angle. % Correct: 46.5909090909091 Comments: Egocentric thinking in Piaget’s theory involves a child’s inability to understand that others can have different thoughts and experiences from themselves. The only answer above that relates to that concept is answer D. The other answers relate to selfishness or some type of bullying, 5. According to Piaget, children in the concrete operations stage have difficulties with what? A. The concept of object permanence B. The distinction between appearance and reality *C. Hypothetical or abstract ideas D. Conservation of number % Correct: 64.7727272727273 Comments: The concrete operational stage is the third stage of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. By this stage, children have mastered their basic understanding of how the world works, but also cannot think about abstract ideas or hypothetical scenarios very well. For example, a 9-year-old would struggle to imagine what would happen at the park if they decided to play a new game. 6. According to Vygotsky, what is “the zone of proximal development”? A. The difference between what the child can do and what the child hopes to do. B. The difference between the words a child uses and the words the child understands. C. The difference between what a child knows and what the parents know. *D. The difference between what a child does alone and what the child does with help. % Correct: 61.3636363636364 Comments: This is a definition question. Vygotsky, though not celebrated much during his time, is considered a very influential theorist in both the cognitive development of children and ways that this development can be sped along. The concept of zones of proximal development is critical to this theory. 7. The Strange Situation, a test developed by Mary Ainsworth, attempts to evaluate which of the following? A. Children’s choices between a small reward now and a larger one later *B. Children’s attachment to their mothers or other people C. Children’s understanding of complex or ambiguous sentences D. Children’s understanding of basic physical principles % Correct: 59.0909090909091 Comments: Mary Ainsworth was a student of John Bowlby’s. Bowlby proposed that people had different types of attachment to others. Ainsworth’s research examined if these different attachment types emerged as early as late infancy. In her studies, she exposed infants to a variety of different scenarios to test their attachment to their primary caregiver. Her work suggested that our bonds to our caregivers can vary from person to person by the time we are entering childhood. This memorably research eventually made her more well-known that Bowlby and his theory. 8. To do research on the psychological effects of birth order, what should a researcher do in order to control for a big effect that has been discussed with respect to findings related to this topic? A. Limit the study to people who attended public schools. B. Limit the study to people whose parents are happily married. *C. Limit the study to people from families with at least two children. D. Limit the study to people who are known to be similar to one another in personality. % Correct: 76.1363636363636 Comments: One of the biggest factors that impacts a wide range of topics explored in birth order research is the size of the family that the child is coming from. Research on this topic suggests that firstborns are very different from children from single-child family homes. To measure birth order effects, researchers must always control for effects that family size plays on the topic being explored. 9. What evidence suggests strongly that nurture has little effect on children’s personality? A. Psychologists have demonstrated personality differences between one cohort and another. B. The personality of firstborn children differs from that of later-born children. *C. The personality of adopting parents correlates almost zero with their adopted children. D. Personality differences are greater in some countries than in others. % Correct: 61.3636363636364 Comments: In developmental psychology, the term “nurture” relates to the impact of the environment on the development of children. The one example above that suggests that a person’s environment has no impact on his/her development is answer C. 10. Someone interested in the nature–nurture issue would probably explore how behavioral development depends on which factors? *A. Heredity and environment B. Mind and brain C. Thoughts and ideas D. Diet and exercise % Correct: 94.3181818181818 Comments: This is an awkwardly phrased nature versus nurture definition-based question. If a researcher is examining the nature/nurture issue, the researcher is looking at whether heredity or the environment is impacts an aspect of a developed characteristic. 11. Which of the following would imply proof for the nativist concept of heritability? A. The effects of heredity depend on the environment. B. Hereditary differences and environmental differences are equal for all behaviors. C. Evolution continues to improve humanity from one generation to the next. *D. Genes are more important for behavior than for anything else in biology. % Correct: 51.1363636363636 Comments: The nativist approach to heritability focuses on the assumption that certain skills are hardwired in the brain at birth. Though there is very little research to support the reach of this theory, it is still a prominent idea that has persisted in science for centuries. 12. Which language a child speaks (English or Chinese, for example) depends almost entirely on differences in environment, and therefore has approximately what level of heritability? *A. 0 B. 0.5 C. 1 D. -1 % Correct: 63.6363636363636 Comments: Language development is a concept that has been a part of the nativism/empiricism debate that has raged on for centuries. Though many theorists have suggested that language proclivity and other skills are inherent at birth, most studies have suggested otherwise. In fact, most research suggests that the correlation between language predispositions and genetics is exactly 0. 13. What specifically defines “dizygotic twins”? A. Twins who developed from a single fertilized egg *B. Twins who developed from different fertilized eggs C. Twins who were reared by the same family D. Twins who were reared by different families % Correct: 89.7727272727273 Comments: In heritability research, studying sibling pairs that have varying degrees of environmental and biological overlaps has been a very fruitful topic of pursuit. One of the sibling pairs studied are dizygotic twins. These twins, otherwise known as “fraternal twins”, come from two separate zygotes that develop at the same time within the womb. They share the same genetic overlap as any typical sibling pair. They are a particularly interesting sibling pair because they share very similar environments from conception to childhood and their genetic overlap is the same as any sibling pair. Thus, we can compare them to traditional siblings to examine how some early environmental encounters shape a variety of different characteristics. 14. Which example bests supports the notion of John Locke’s “Tabula Rasa”? A. A child that seems to have a predisposition for learning music at a very young age B. Siblings who share an overlap in their political leanings *C. A child that shows no inherent fears of any stimuli until a scary encounter with one D. A teenager that undergoes puberty early % Correct: 69.3181818181818 Comments: Though subsequent research has suggested that Locke’s “Tabula Rasa” theory is incorrect, the example below that would suggest that we are born with no in-born knowledge, skills, or preferences is answer C. 15. Is it possible to have a complete set of both male and female external genitals? If not, why not? A. Yes, it is possible to have a complete set of both, but only if someone produces enough of both hormones during development. B. It is impossible, because a fetus has either testosterone or estradiol, but not both. *C. It is impossible, because both come from the same gonadal tissue. D. It is possible, in fact, nearly 5% of the population has some degree of development of these. % Correct: 30.6818181818182 Comments: People were all over the board in their responses to this question. In the sexual development lecture, it is discussed how the release of hormones during the developmental process in the womb initiate the conversion of gonadal tissue into what later becomes genitalia. Many things can occur during this process that makes this development less absolute than most people believe, but since we all start with one gonadal tissue, it can develop abnormally, but it can’t develop into two full sets of external genitals. 16. What is gender identity? A. Whether someone is male or female, according to the chromosomes B. Whether someone responds mostly to male or female sexual partners *C. Whether someone regards himself or herself as male or female D. Whether someone is male or female, according to the external anatomy % Correct: 93.1818181818182 Comments: The term gender identity refers to the answer provided in response C. This is one of the many concepts related to the topic of sex, sexuality, and gender that has been discussed and explored by psychologists. 17. If a human fetus is exposed to lower than normal levels of both testosterone and estrogens throughout prenatal development, how would external sexual anatomy appear? A. Like that of a typical male *B. Like that of a typical female C. About halfway between typical male and typical female D. With both the typical male structures and the typical female structures % Correct: 43.1818181818182 Comments: Since the production of testosterone is the source of the development of sexual anatomy while in-utero, the lack of testosterone is the important part of this question. Infants that produce less testosterone when their gonads develop into external sexual anatomy have their gonads develop into female gentilia. 18. What type of evidence, if any, links sexual orientation to genetic influences? A. Comparisons of people in different cultures *B. Comparisons of monozygotic and dizygotic twins C. Observations of consistency from childhood to adulthood D. No evidence supports this conclusion. % Correct: 56.8181818181818 Comments: Though there is research that suggests that sexual orientation is a byproduct of a combination of both genetics and environment, the answer above that provides evidence for the genetic component to this concept is answer B. We have indeed found fairly large differences between the overlap in sexual orientation between monozygotic and dizygotic twins. 19. Research suggests that children as young as age _____ can usually identify gender and gender related concepts. A. 1 *B. 2 C. 4 D. 6 % Correct: 62.5 Comments: There is always variability from child to child, but most children do display the ability to detect gender and gender related topics by the age of 2. Most research suggests that much of this comes from social learning through adults and peers. 20. Your genome is defined as such because it contains A. the genetic information found on your 23rd pair of chromosomes. B. the overlap of environmental influences shared between you and your siblings. C. a collection of biological and environmental factors that can explain your behaviors. *D. all of the genetic material that is found in the cells of your body. % Correct: 71.5909090909091 Comments: This is simply a definition question. Your genome is your complete set of genes—roughly all 20,500 of them. 21. Which effect related to birth order has been found to be the most “robust”? *A. intelligence test performance B. traits related to the “Big 5” C. handedness D. sexual orientation % Correct: 51.1363636363636 Comments: Though there are some small overlaps between birth order and several topics, the only topic that has indicated a highly significant overlap with birth order is intelligence test performance. 22. What do backward masking, flash suppression, and binocular rivalry have in common? A. They are ways to measure the current activity of various brain areas. B. They are ways to increase arousal of a patient in a minimally conscious state. C. They are ways to probe the motivations and emotions of the unconscious mind. *D. They are ways to present a stimulus so someone will not be conscious of it. % Correct: 64.7727272727273 Comments: There has been a variety of research studies done on the topic of subliminal mental activity. Though there’s little evidence to support Freud’s original conception of the unconscious through the research that has been conducted, there is evidence to show that we do have some level of activity that occurs below our conscious level of awareness. Three of the mechanisms used to get at subliminal perception are listed in the question. 23. Research on implicit learning would suggest that having you listen to a recording of the lectures for this class while sleeping should A. help you immensely. B. improve your score, but a little less than if you were listening while awake. C. have only a little effect, but an effect nonetheless. *D. have nearly no effect whatsoever. % Correct: 6.81818181818182 Comments: Sadly, almost the entire class that took this exam got this questions wrong. Hopefully they didn’t attempt this approach when studying for the exams. There is no research that supports the notion that implicit learning during sleep can have any effect whatsoever—despite the wide collection of programs out there that imply otherwise. 24. The version of implicit life that seems to have the most empirical evidence supporting it is A. implicit thought. *B. implicit perception. C. implicit motivation. D. implicit emotions. % Correct: 43.1818181818182 Comments: The terms implicit and subliminal are often used interchangeably when discussing how perception can occur below the surface level of our conscious mind. In this question, implicit perception is the only mental activity where there is significant evidence to suggest that it exists. Of course, that hasn’t stopped theorists and researchers from studying and using the other implicit mental activities in their work for decades. 25. You don’t consciously perceive a brief masked visual stimulus, but you then more easily identify words related to that stimulus immediately afterward. What implicit theory do these results support? A. Consciousness depends on connections between the brain and the spinal cord. *B. You can engage in subliminal perception. C. Unconscious mental processes can complete complex reasoning. D. You need to have equal activity in both hemispheres of the brain to be consciously aware of a stimulus. % Correct: 59.0909090909091 Comments: This question is referencing one of the examples of proof for subliminal perception. There is indeed considerable research that supports that this version of implicit/subliminal perception can occur. 26. What is meant by a “lucid” dream? *A. A dream that the dreamer recognizes as being a dream B. A dream that predicts events of the future C. A dream that causes someone to awaken in fear D. A dream that reflects unconscious emotions or motivations % Correct: 73.8636363636364 Comments: This is a surface definition question. Someone engages in lucid dreaming when they recognize that they are dreaming during the dream. Though this is an extremely interesting topic, there hasn’t been much ability to study this effect with empirical research. 27. What did Franz Mesmer’s work lead to? A. Dream research *B. Hypnosis C. Electroencephalography D. Psychoanalysis % Correct: 51.1363636363636 Comments: Franz Mesmer is considered the founder of hypnosis. Oddly, the way he stumbled onto this altered state of consciousness was close to sheer chance. Moreover, the conclusions that he made when he discovered this altered state of consciousness were even more odd. 28. The body’s major postural muscles are most relaxed during which stage of sleep? *A. REM sleep B. Stage 2 C. Stage 3 D. Stage 4 % Correct: 52.2727272727273 Comments: During REM sleep, not only are our postural muscles relaxed, they’re immobilized for all intents and purposes. This is believed to prevent the body from moving during the stage of sleep that is most related to dreams. Our eyes are not immobilized during this stage of sleep. This is the reason for why this stage has been referred to as REM sleep (rapid eye movement). 29. What is the main criticism of Freud’s theory of dreams? A. Freud thought dreams occurred only during non-REM sleep. B. Freud underestimated the sexual content of most dreams. *C. The accuracy of his interpretations was difficult or impossible to check. D. Most dreams are much more pleasant than Freud recognized. % Correct: 70.4545454545455 Comments: After his publication of his “Interpretation of Dreams” book, many people became entranced by Freud’s notions that our dreams had some special meaning behind them. It led people into a world where they attempted to decode their dreams to understand and explore different parts of their hidden mind. The resounding problem with this idea was the fact that Freud’s theories were so ambiguous that they could never be refuted—and thus, also never be verified. 30. Schizophrenia would be put in which of the following categories? A. developmental disorders B. organic brain syndromes *C. psychoses D. psychophysiological disorders % Correct: 42.0454545454545 Comments: Though schizophrenia relates to several different symptoms, the heart of the disorder lies in the break from reality that peopled diagnosed with the disorder are experiencing. This break from reality is why it is put under the category of psychoses. 31. The DSM focuses on ____________ when differentiating between disorders. A. sources of problems *B. symptoms C. treatment options D. philosophical approaches used to explain and treat a person % Correct: 73.8636363636364 Comments: The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders is a manual designed to provide terminology for the different disorders and symptoms used by clinicians in the American Psychological Association. The disorders in this manual all focus on a combination of symptoms to differentiate between them. Though it covers a lot of additional information about each disorder, the differences between symptoms is what is always used to differentiate between disorders. 32. Which of the following relates to the “fuzzy sets” issue in clinical psychology? A. the fact that we don’t know the source of schizophrenia B. the variety of different treatments that work for generalized anxiety disorder *C. the variety of different symptoms that can be used for a diagnosis of depression D. the long-term impact of aphasias % Correct: 75 Comments: Most disorders listed in the DSM are defined by a combination of different symptoms. The “fuzzy sets” issue relates to the fact that these combinations of symptoms aren’t a rigid set. Most people diagnosed with disorders don’t possess all of the different symptoms listed for the disorder, just a combination of some of the ones listed. This has led to some questions about the rigid definition of disorders that we often ascribe to them. 33. Earlier experimental psychopathologists were able to show through dichotic listening tasks that *A. individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia performed far worse on different indicators of attention in these tasks. B. there were no differences in performance across those diagnosed with a collection of different disorders, as well as controls. C. individuals diagnosed with depression made more errors (performed worse) on these tasks, but those diagnosed with schizophrenia did better than controls on these tasks. D. drugs seem to exacerbate symptom related performance, even if the drugs help with symptoms related to the disorder with which a person has been diagnosed. % Correct: 53.4090909090909 Comments: This was discussed experimental psychopathology lecture. These results highlight the interesting research that has examined how clinical diagnoses might span beyond just the clinicalrelated aspects of the mind. In it, we can see how our physiological reactions to stimuli might also be changed as a result of the changes that occur when symptoms of a clinical diagnosis begin to emerge. 34. In reference to eye tracking tasks, individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia perform _________ in comparison to controls that take the same test. A. nearly the same B. with fewer tracking errors *C. with more erratic movement while tracking D. with less erratic movement while tracking % Correct: 82.9545454545455 Comments: This was discussed experimental psychopathology lecture. These results highlight the interesting research that has examined how clinical diagnoses might span beyond just the clinicalrelated aspects of the mind. In it, we can see how our physiological reactions to stimuli might also be changed as a result of the changes that occur when symptoms of a clinical diagnosis begin to emerge. 35. The concept of experimental neurosis was connected to anxiety related disorders in the experimental psychopathology lecture. Which animals were originally assigned the term when examining their behavior in a lab setting? A. cats when they had to mimic the behavior of another cat B. rats when they were repeatedly shocked without having a way to avoid the shock C. pigeons when they were asked to distinguish between different stimuli that they were not biologically pre-dispositioned to do so—at least very well *D. dogs when they were tasked to discriminate between shapes and then lost the ability to do so when the shapes became too similar % Correct: 18.1818181818182 Comments: This question tested out as a “difficult question”, but it was discussed in detail during the experimental psychopathology question. As was covered in that lecture, experimental psychopathologists often look at a variety of different impacts that symptoms of different disorders have on other types of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning. The belief of many in this branch of psychology is that these endeavors can help us better understand causes, treatments, and effects related to a variety of different mental disorders and mental health issues. 36. The concept of learned helplessness, explored by Martin Seligman and his colleagues, was tied to symptoms related to the disorder of _________ in the experimental psychopathology lecture. A. schizophrenia B. generalized anxiety disorder *C. depression D. autism % Correct: 71.5909090909091 Comments: This topic was explored a few different times in the class. It was tied to learning, personality psychology, and now clinical psychology. In the clinical lectures, this experiment by Seligman’s was tied to similar symptoms displayed by those diagnosed with depression. Though Seligman’s goal in his research was never to draw that connection between this learned helplessness and depression, many clinical psychologists have argued that this tie explains a lot of the challenges linked to treating people displaying symptoms of depression. 37. In the diathesis-stress model of mental health, one’s early childhood experiences would be considered part of the __________ portion of this formula. A. combination *B. stress C. diathesis D. synergism % Correct: 39.7727272727273 Comments: In the diathesis-stress model, the diathesis is the biological predisposition that impacts the development of some abnormal aspect of cognitive/emotional/behavioral life. The stress is the social/environmental factors that impact this development. Since childhood experiences are social/environmental experiences, the answer to this question is B, stress. 38. Most research on the diathesis stress model and how it applies to a collection of different disorders and psychological health symptoms suggests that a large number of issues come from A. primarily our biology. B. primarily our environment. *C. a critical interaction between our environment and our biological predispositions. D. childhood experiences in combination with adulthood changes in our physiology. % Correct: 65.9090909090909 Comments: In the diathesis stress model of clinical disorders, the diathesis portion of the model is the biological predispositions that are often linked to the development of many disorders. The stress portion of the model focuses on the environmental factors that play a role in the development of different disorders. 39. Peptic ulcers were used as an example for how ____________ when exploring the diathesis-stress model of health. A. some issues are caused entirely by environmental factors B. some issues are caused entirely by biological changes in the body *C. even random physical ailments arise from the interaction between biology and our mental strain D. our genetics can actually change through mental strain % Correct: 65.9090909090909 Comments: We call the damage to the lining of the walls of the stomach peptic ulcers. This damage has been traced back to the production of a specific enzyme that can help with the breakdown of acids that can erode the lining of the stomach. Though we originally traced these ulcers to stress, the discovery of the enzyme led many to question that link. Recently, we have discovered that the stress someone experiences is directly tied to the prominence of that enzyme in somebody’s stomach—thus, reaffirming the link between biology and mental strain with respect to health. 40. Which of the following was NOT listed as an issue with pharmacological treatment for mental health related issues? A. side effects of drugs *B. philosophical issues with the ethics of drugs C. lack of specificity D. do not cure the illness % Correct: 47.7272727272727 Comments: Though some groups have expressed concerns about the ethics of using drugs to treat different mental disorders, this issue is not considered a key topic of debate for clinicians that are concerned about treating disorders primarily with drugs. Several of the top concerns that clinicians hold with respect to this issue are covered in the other answers to this question. 41. Most of the early forms of psychotherapy came from the theories of _____________. A. Carl Rogers *B. Sigmund Freud C. William James D. John Kihlstrom % Correct: 67.0454545454545 Comments: Sadly, a number of students chose D for this question. John Kihlstrom was the instructor that generated the lectures and format for the class. He was not around when many of the early forms of psychotherapy were being developed. However, Sigmund Freud was. Though many of his theories have been challenged and/or disproven over the years, much of clinical psychology and personality psychology got their starts from the ideas and “research” of Sigmund Freud. 42. Rita’s therapist is challenging her thinking and reactions that she displayed while Rita describes recent stressful night out with her friends. Based on this approach, it is probably a good guess that Rita’s therapist is trained in the ____________ approach to psychotherapy. *A. cognitive-behavioral B. humanistic C. psychoanalytic D. behavioral % Correct: 63.6363636363636 Comments: This therapeutic approach being described in the question is a great example of one aspect of cognitive-behavioral therapy. CBT is a therapy approach designed to address the thoughts and behaviors that come along with the diagnosis of a disorder. The assumption is that our thoughts and behaviors might be the source of a lot of clinical issues with which people struggle. 43. Exposure therapy is best categorized as a type of ___________psychotherapy. A. psychoanalytic B. humanistic *C. behavioral D. psychopharmacology based % Correct: 69.3181818181818 Comments: Though behavioral therapy can take on a variety of different forms, the practice of exposure therapy is a prominent type of behavioral therapy. It focuses on the aspect of learning to break the connection between some environment or cue and the catastrophic belief or fear that it produces. 44. Based on evidence based research, the most effective psychotherapy for a wide variety of different disorders is A. the Gestaltist approach. B. psychoanalysis. C. humanistic. *D. cognitive-behavioral therapy. % Correct: 76.1363636363636 Comments: Though it is always important to stress that therapy is an individualized thing, research has consistently shown that CBT is the most effective form of treatment on average for a wide array of different disorders. There is debate as to why this is the case, but most studies on the efficacy of different forms of therapy support this idea. 45. The head of the Parisian hospital system in the early 1900’s that has been credited with altering the approach to mental hospitals around the world was *A. Philippe Pinel. B. Alfred Bedlam. C. Jean Charcot. D. Alfred Binet. % Correct: 21.5909090909091 Comments: This was a name identification question—which sadly many students could not get correct. Philippe Pinel is considered by many to be a person ahead of his time. He challenged the commonly accepted idea that individuals with mental health issues were “sick” and that their “illness” could be spread like other pathogen based diseases that had been discovered during Pinel’s lifetime. This novel way of thinking led to a revolution in both the care and treatment of individuals with mental health issues. 46. The notion of de-institutionalism became extremely popular in the United States after A. world war 2. B. the push for less government spending on mental health during the great depression. *C. the discovery of several drugs that greatly helped with symptoms related to several disorders, but particularly schizophrenia. D. the “not in my back yard” movement in the early 1980’s. % Correct: 43.1818181818182 Comments: Though there were other justifications for the movement away from our large number of institutions for individuals struggling with a wide array of different disorders, there is undeniable evidence that pairs the movement of de-institutionalization with the discovery of several anti-psychotic drugs that showed very high levels of efficacy. 47. If an observer monkey sees another monkey react with fear in the presence of a snake, will the observer become afraid of snakes also? A. No. *B. Yes, but only if it sees the snake. C. Yes, but only if it has the gene for “fear of snakes.” D. Yes, under all circumstances. % Correct: 62.5 Comments: This research by Cook, Mineka, and others highlighted the need of vicarious learning for the development of phobias. Though some question if this learning is necessary for the development of all cases of phobia, it does seem to be an undeniable component to many cases that develop. 48. Which of the following is most common among people with major depression? A. Excessive eating *B. Sleep abnormalities C. Rapid heart rate D. Joint laxity (“double-jointedness”) % Correct: 84.0909090909091 Comments: There have been several different unexpected physical and mental components linked to individuals diagnosed with depression over the years. The one that is most commonly linked to a diagnosis of depression is sleep abnormalities. These abnormalities can exist in a number of forms (too much sleep, restless sleep, inconsistent sleep patterns, etc.), but some type of abnormality is common in individuals diagnosed with depression. 49. What causes schizophrenia, according to the neurodevelopmental hypothesis? A. A chaotic or abusive social environment during childhood B. Concussions or other blows to the brain in late childhood or early adolescence C. Gradual deterioration of synapses, beginning in early adulthood *D. Impairments in the early development of the nervous system % Correct: 52.2727272727273 Comments: There have been several theories linked to the development of schizophrenia over the years. The most popular theory that persists today relates to the disorder coming from a combination of a genetic predisposition and some early exposure to an environmental disruptor of the nervous system. There have been several different theories about what disruptor—or combination of them— is/are critical to the development of this disorder later in life. 50. Which of the following suggests that you are more likely than average to become an alcoholic? A. You can handle stressful situations more easily than most people. B. You can taste alcohol in lower concentrations than most people do. C. You develop hangovers more easily than most people do. *D. You can drink much alcohol before you start to feel drunk. % Correct: 81.8181818181818 Comments: Many people trace alcoholism to genetics and their own personal scenarios (childhood experiences, stressful events, etc.), but researchers looking for who has a penchant for developing the disorder have looked hard for indicators that can help the detect someone might develop the disorder eventually. One of the strongest indicators that has been found relates to people’s natural tolerance for large amounts of alcohol. Final Exam Psych W1 – Online General Psychology – UC Berkeley – Spring 2017 1. If someone is trying to break down someone’s reaction to something by going from psychology, to neuroscience, to cellular activity, to chemistry, and then even physics, that person is highlighting the __________ approach to science. *A. reductionist B. expansionist C. minimizing D. maximizing % Correct: 51.1627906976744 Comments: The reductionist approach has been debated across the different fields of science over the years. By following this approach, many researchers have argued that we can explain almost all phenomena at the level of physics—though we might often miss the point of what’s going on with the phenomena when doing so. 2. A researcher asked misleading questions about a video, such as “Did you see children get on the school bus?” (The video showed no bus.) What did the research find? A. Misleading questions cause people to mistrust the researcher. *B. Misleading questions lead to many inaccurate memory reports. C. Misleading questions increase the probability of repression. D. Misleading questions help people affirm and thus retain their correct memories better. % Correct: 87.2093023255814 Comments: This question relates to how misinformation can alter our memory. One theorist who worked on this topic for many years was a researcher named Elizabeth Loftus. Her research has been applied to witness interrogations, childhood memory recollection cases, and other high-profile situations where our memories of past event are critical but might also be subjected to manipulation through questioning or suggestions. 3. On the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler IQ tests, how many people get scores from 0 to 100? *A. 50 percent B. 68 percent C. 84 percent D. 100 percent % Correct: 31.3953488372093 Comments: This question references the topic of standardized intelligence tests. In almost all versions of standardized tests, the mean performance of the test has been set at a score of 100, with a standard deviation of the scores being set at 15. This would imply that exactly half of the population would score a 100 or below. 4. If you don’t have a lot of time to solve a complex problem, you’ll probably need to use ___________ in order to give yourself a chance to complete the task. *A. a heuristic B. an algorithm C. a maximizer D. a minimizer % Correct: 74.4186046511628 Comments: When solving complex problems, we have two options. We can use an algorithm, which is an exhaustive approach that considers many options but ultimately guarantees a response to the problem (if the problem has a solution). Or, we can use a heuristic, which is a short-hand approach that allows the problem solver to generate a much faster solution to a problem, even if that solution isn’t the best solution possible. 5. Based on a large collection of research, the upper-limit cap of how much a trait relates to a specific behavior is considered at or around _____. *A. .30 B. .50 C. .70 D. .90 % Correct: 45.3488372093023 Comments: Trait research often touts the importance of individual differences when explaining differences behavior within social situations. With that being said, most research has found that traits only predict a maximum of about 10% of our behaviors in these situations. 6. Solomon Asch was able to show in his famous “line studies” that we conform A. when authority figures ask us to conform. *B. even when there is a correct response that others in our group are not giving. C. when the correct response is ambiguous. D. when we are directly asked to go against our own interests. % Correct: 70.9302325581395 Comments: In Asch’s line study, he asked participants to judge which line out of several options was closest in length to a test line. While the participants were giving their responses, they were with a group of confederates that Asch had embedded into the study who acted as participants. These confederates universally gave the same wrong answer a number of times during the study, so Asch could examine what the true participants in the study would do when that scenario arose. He was able to show that about ¾ of the participants would often go with the group at least once and that participants went with the group when it gave a wrong answer approximately 40% of the time. 7. Research on split-brain people supports which of these general points? A. After any action, we have a tendency to perform the opposite action in the brain. *B. As a result of the speed of the brain, we sometimes don’t know the reasons for our own behaviors. C. The brain can grow back after damage. D. We use only 10 percent of our brain’s capacity at most times. % Correct: 29.0697674418605 Comments: This was admittedly a difficult question. In reviewing, I’m not sure how the concept of “split-brain” research really applies to the answers below. That being said, the only answer below that is true is answer B. 8. A child watches a mother move some chocolate while “Maxi” isn’t watching. A psychologist asks, “Where will Maxi look for the chocolate?” What concept is the psychologist testing? *A. Theory of mind B. Conservation of volume C. Concrete operations D. Identity achievement % Correct: 41.8604651162791 Comments: This was a poorly phrased question that was getting at one of the cognitive concepts that children need to learn as they develop. It is getting at the theory of mind. The theory of mind references the ability to understand that not all people know and experience the same thing—especially the same thing as the child. 9. Who is displaying the concept of “sunk costs” in their behavior? A. Rachel, who is really sad that she spent so much money on tickets to a concert that she didn’t like. B. Morris, who is trying hard to figure out a problem that he knew going into it might not be something that can be solved. C. Reisha, who is scared to invest in a company that might not be successful. *D. Wally, who is willing to pay a lot for a second unexpected car repair after he paid his mechanic for a first one. % Correct: 40.6976744186046 Comments: Sunk costs involve us over-valuing something after we have already invested in it. For example, if you pay a lot for a movie that turned out bad, you’re less likely to walk out if the movie in comparison to those who paid only a little for the ticket. 10. Using terminology in research on the topic, a person’s “sex” is determined by *A. reproductive anatomy. B. sexual orientation. C. gender identity. D. the roles that they take on. % Correct: 68.6046511627907 Comments: Though there are many concepts linked to the biology and psychology surrounding the topics of gender and sex, the term “sex” is used to define the reproductive anatomy that someone possesses. This can occasionally differ from someone’s chemistry, gender identity, or other aspect of sexuality that is often tied to a specific sex. 11. Anxiety disorders are closely linked to the concept of _________ when classifying different concepts of psychological deviance. *A. neurosis B. psychosis C. organic brain syndromes D. dissociative disorders % Correct: 44.1860465116279 Comments: Anxiety disorders all involve a strong emotional response that can stem from a variety of different sources. Since anxiety disorders don’t constitute a change in biology, a break from reality, or some other major break from mental or emotional skills they are neither a psychosis, organic brain syndrome, nor dissociative disorder. Because of the emotional component to these disorders, they are considered neuroses. 12. The term “IQ” is short for A. intelligence quora—named after the Greek construct for differences in cognitive capacity. B. intelligence quota—based on the minimum test performance required to be considered “normal”. C. information quantity—the aggregate performance of someone taking an intelligence test. *D. intelligence quotient—based on the formula used to determine a person’s comparative intelligence. % Correct: 81.3953488372093 Comments: The intelligence quotient has changed over the years since it’s induction. It originally involved the comparison of a child’s chronological age to their mental age. As the test evolved, it became a measure of comparison for children of the same age. Now IQ scores indicate how many standard deviations above or below the average a person is in comparison to everyone in his/her age group. 13. Nerves are collections of _______ found in the _____________. A. glia cells; peripheral nervous system B. glia cells; central nervous system *C. neurons; peripheral nervous system D. neurons; central nervous system % Correct: 37.2093023255814 Comments: This is a definition question. Nerves are the clusters of neurons found in our peripheral nervous system. Nuclei are the clusters of neurons found in our central nervous system. 14. Contralateral projection of information is possible because of the _________ in our brain. A. frontal lobe B. pons C. thalamus *D. corpus callosum % Correct: 54.6511627906977 Comments: Contralateral projection involves the interaction between the hemispheres of our brain and the sides of our body. Oddly, the right side of our body is linked to the left hemisphere of our brain— and vice versa. For this to occur, strands of matter that make up the corpus callosum are required. This structure also plays a role in allowing the two hemispheres of our brain to stay connected with each other. 15. The correlation coefficient determines A. the measure of variability for a variable. B. the measure of central tendency for a variable. *C. the nature of the relationship between variables. D. the magnitude of the effect of a manipulation between groups in an experiment. % Correct: 77.9069767441861 Comments: The correlation coefficient, often represented by the letter r in calculations, is a measure of association. In particular, it allows researchers to measure the strength of the overlap between two or more variables. 16. Imprinting is an example of a A. taxis. B. reflex. C. learned response. *D. instinct. % Correct: 48.8372093023256 Comments: Imprinting is the process where birds bond and subsequently follow the first moving object that they encounter immediately after birth. Since it is a lifelong response that requires many stimuli and involves many different parts of the body over a sustained period of time, this response is defined as an instinct. 17. The Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory of color vision has been sourced back to initial variations in activity of the *A. cones in our eyes. B. cornea of our eyes. C. optic nerve along the thalamus. D. optic tract along the occipital lobe. % Correct: 77.9069767441861 Comments: The Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory of color vision started just as a theory. It surmised that our perception of color differences could be as simple as a calculation by our mind of the combination of activity produced by three different types of cells in our eyes. As our tools for looking at our biology evolved, we were able to verify that we did indeed have cells called cones in the back of our eyes that came in three different forms, allowing us to decipher the color of things that we see in our visual field. 18. Jean Piaget is a well-known figure in the history of psychology for his research on A. intelligence. *B. cognitive development. C. emotion regulation. D. motivational principles. % Correct: 90.6976744186046 Comments: Jean Piaget was the first psychologist to extensively study the cognitive changes that we undergo from infancy to adulthood. His research led us to discussions about stages of development, schemas, and processes like assimilation and accommodation. 19. Tests like the Thematic Apperception test, where someone tells a story about some ambiguous image, are designed to theoretically measures a person’s A. explicit memory. B. implicit memory. C. explicit motivations. *D. implicit motivations. % Correct: 51.1627906976744 Comments: The TAT is a test that has been discredited by many in recent decades. However, for a long time, it was considered a critical measure that could allow researchers to get at hidden desires and drives that people held. It was touted as a means of getting at drives that pushed people in ways that they either didn’t know or couldn’t accept. 20. Signal detection theory research would suggest that an observer with “low sensitivity” to a stimulus would ___________ in comparison to someone with “high sensitivity” to a stimulus. A. make more false alarms *B. have a lower hit rate C. respond with “yes” more often to stimulus presence questions D. be presented a stimulus less often % Correct: 75.5813953488372 Comments: The sensitivity of a person in a signal-detection test would impact their rate of stimulus detection—even if the stimulus isn’t present at times. Someone with heightened sensitivity would detect stimuli when present much more often than those with a low sensitivity. They would also be likely to detect stimuli when they are not present more often, but this wasn’t really a part of the different responses available in this question. 21. Convergence and retinal disparity are both types of ___________ that can be used as evidence for the ecological view of perception. A. monocular cues *B. binocular cues C. constructivist examples D. top-down techniques % Correct: 70.9302325581395 Comments: In order to determine size and depth of objects in our visual field, we theoretically have a number of tricks that our mind can use. Two of those tricks are convergence and retinal disparity. Convergence involves our use of eye movement required to focus on an object in order to determine size and depth. Retinal disparity utilizes the different images that reach our two eyes in order to calculate out the size and distance of objects. Since both rely on information from our two eyes, we call them binocular cues. 22. Icons and echoes are both considered components of our ___________ memory. *A. sensory B. long-term C. short-term D. chunking % Correct: 51.1627906976744 Comments: In the temporal stages of memory, the elements of memory are often broken up into different components based on the medium with which the information is presented. The auditory information processed by our sensory store is called echoic memory. The visual information processed by our sensory store are called icons. 23. Research would suggest that if you hear a story about a friend that you know well, the information from that story that you would be most likely to recall later would be the ___________ information. A. schema-irrelevant B. schema-congruent *C. schema-incongruent D. schema-composite % Correct: 40.6976744186046 Comments: Research on memory of stories suggest that information often comes in three forms: schema congruent, schema incongruent, and irrelevant. The information retained the least is the irrelevant information. The information retained the most is our schema incongruent information. For example, if you don’t like someone and you hear a story that includes the fact that the person you don’t like did something nice, that information would likely be retained by you in your memory. 24. Edward Tolman’s research on latent learning in his maze-running rats highlighted the problem with A. assuming rats cannot learn. *B. looking for immediate behaviors as indications of learning. C. the assumptions about generalization when examining the learning process. D. using classical conditioning as an attempt to explain all forms of learning. % Correct: 39.5348837209302 Comments: Tolman’s research came at a time where an argument about whether all forms of learning and mental activity could be reduced to observable behavioral changes. Tolman’s study had rats run a maze where there originally was no reward to complete the maze. Based on their performance in the conditions without a reward, they displayed behaviors that didn’t indicate learning had taken place after running the maze many times. When they were suddenly rewarded for running the maze, the rats showed behavior that indicated that they had been learning while in the maze throughout. 25. Research looking at the actual experience of a sensation suggests that this experience comes from activity at A. the proximal stimulus. B. the sensory tract. C. the receptor organ. *D. the projection area. % Correct: 36.046511627907 Comments: Though the process of sensation often starts through activation of a receptor organ, the actual experience of a sensation occurs as a result of activity of a projection area located in the brain. 26. Based on facial displays, researchers have surmised that we might have _____ “basic emotions”. A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 *D. 6 % Correct: 59.3023255813954 Comments: Research has consistently shown that people across many cultures and throughout the lifespan all display a universal combination of muscle movements in the face when experiencing 6 different emotions. There has been suggestion that there might be two additional emotions that are universal—just not displayed until we develop a sense of self—but there have never been any real arguments that anything less than 6 emotions are universal in research focusing on movements of the face. 27. Harry Harlow’s multiple research projects with Rhesus Monkeys in the 1950’s all focused on ______ as (a) motivator(s). A. the drive for homeostasis B. a push for self-actualization *C. different intrinsic needs D. primary reinforcers % Correct: 32.5581395348837 Comments: This research was mentioned in the motivation lectures and readings. Harlow’s work examined the drive for closeness and comfort. His main research focused on the effects of newborn monkeys when these things were not provided. Though controversial, his research led the way to explore how bonds with parents, friends, and romantic partners impacted the individual throughout the lifespan. 28. Someone focusing on the doctrine of traits would focus their attention on the ___ in the B=f(P,E) formula when explaining an action. A. B B. f *C. P D. E % Correct: 52.3255813953488 Comments: The formula listed above equates to “behavior is the function of an interaction between personality and the environment”. Trait psychologists focus their attention on personality factors that are playing a role in a behavior. This would mean that their research would focus primarily on the P portion of the equation. 29. Fantasy, esthetics, feelings, and values are all facets of the “Big Five” trait of A. creativity. B. conscientiousness. C. agreeableness. *D. openness. % Correct: 32.5581395348837 Comments: Within the “Big Five”, each of the 5 traits listed has 8 different “facets” to them. These facets are related to each other, but distinct enough to be examined separately. The facets listed above all fit under the “Big Five” trait of openness to experience. 30. The “mere exposure effect” suggests that A. we remember stuff more after having seen it multiple times. B. perception is based on our previous experiences. *C. we like things more after having seen them multiple times. D. traits can greatly impact the way we perceive something initially. % Correct: 52.3255813953488 Comments: As the name of the term implies, this effect relates to the amount of exposure that a person has to someone or something. Research on this effect has shown that unless someone originally dislikes something or someone, they will grow to like that thing or person more as they encounter the person or thing more often. 31. Neurotransmitters are used by ___________ to send messages ____________. A. neurons; through our bloodstream to the various organs in our body *B. neurons; in synapses C. our endocrine system; through our bloodstream to our muscles D. blood cells in our brain; to different parts of the body % Correct: 76.7441860465116 Comments: Neurotransmitters are the tools used by neurons to communicate to each other and to adjacent cells that the neurons are trying to activate or inhibit. Neurotransmitters come in a variety of forms and are linked to a variety of different functions of the mind. With that being said, they are defined as neurotransmitters specifically because they are chemicals being used by neurons in their communications. 32. Your primary motor cortex is located along your _______ lobe. *A. frontal B. occipital C. parietal D. temporal % Correct: 59.3023255813954 Comments: The frontal lobe is primarily associated with executive functioning. However, there is also a strip along the back of this lobe that contains the primary motor cortex. This is where the initiation of movement within the body begins. 33. Your interactions with your peers in school would be considered a part of the ______ in the heritability equation. A. G B. ES *C. ENS D. MZ % Correct: 63.953488372093 Comments: When determining the cause of actions through heritability research, those studying the topic are trying to assess the proportion that something is caused by genetics (G), a shared environment with siblings (ES), or a non-shared environment with siblings (ENS). Since interactions with peers qualify as a non-shared environment with siblings, the answer to this question is C. 34. Rita has agreed to participate in a research project. In it, she gets shocked every time the researcher says the word “effort”. After a few exposures of this pairing, Rita finds herself cringing every time she hears the word “effort”. In this example, the word “effort” would be called a ________ by a behaviorist. *A. conditioned stimulus B. conditioned response C. unconditioned stimulus D. unconditioned response % Correct: 76.7441860465116 Comments: Classical conditioning is a process of learning that involves the pairing of stimuli and the reactions to those stimuli. In classical conditioning, you start with an unconditioned stimulus that produces an unconditioned response. This unconditioned stimulus is then paired with a neutral stimulus. After learning takes place, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that will produce a conditioned response. Since this example is focusing on a stimulus that doesn’t produce a response, but eventually does through learning, “effort” is considered a conditioned stimulus in this example. 35. Irene’s roommate is trying to get her to stop watching television at night. To do this, her roommate is spraying her with a squirt gun every time Irene turns on the television after 6 PM. This method of behavior modification would be called ___________ by a behaviorist. A. negative punishment *B. positive punishment C. positive reinforcement D. negative reinforcement % Correct: 36.046511627907 Comments: This version of operant conditioning involves the attempt to get a behavior to occur less— which makes it a punishment. Since the means of accomplishing this involves the introduction of a stimulus after the behavior occurs, this type of punishment is defined as positive. 36. Which of the following factors was not discussed as a confounding factor in birth order effect research? *A. religious affiliation B. family size C. age D. socio-economic status % Correct: 70.9302325581395 Comments: Religious affiliation plays a role in several topics related to the mind, but there hasn’t been any research—at least that I know of—that has linked religious affiliation to birth order effects. 37. Which of the following topics would someone defined as an experimental psychopathologist NOT study? A. Differences in facial expressions between those diagnosed with depression and those not B. Childhood incident overlaps between individuals defined with schizophrenia C. Eye tracking abilities of those displaying symptoms of anhedonia in comparison to controls *D. Tracking memory changes of individuals as they age % Correct: 56.9767441860465 Comments: Experimental psychopathologists focus their research on psychological concepts that are measurably different for those that are diagnosed with different disorders in comparison to those that have not been diagnosed with a specific disorder—or any disorders. 38. When researchers argue that a psychotherapy had an effectiveness of 78%, what are they usually comparing this effectiveness to? *A. Untreated controls B. Those without a diagnosis of a disorder C. Those that just received a drug treatment D. Those that received a placebo treatment % Correct: 54.6511627906977 Comments: Though there has been a big push in recent years to compare the efficacy of different psychotherapies to a standard treatment or placebo, the standard for measuring efficacy of approaches is still to compare individuals that received the psychotherapy approach to those that did not receive treatment at all. 39. The principles of similarity, common fate, symmetry, and good continuation are all principles used to explain perception by *A. Gestaltists. B. those supporting the ecological view of perception. C. those studying these topics through the philosophy of empiricism. D. applying the term “reducible fractions”. % Correct: 43.0232558139535 Comments: Early Gestalt psychologists focused their attention on the topic of perception. They wanted to understand how the processes of the mind allowed us to make sense of imperfect or complex stimuli that we encountered in our environment. Several of the rules that they eventually defined in their work while studying visual perception are listed in the question. 40. Terms like “Ames Room”, “Ponzo”, and “Poggendorf” can all be linked to A. the need for variety in clinical psychology. B. issues with memory that are really critical to consider. *C. the need for the constructivist approach to perception. D. language deficits that can be explained through brain structure damage. % Correct: 62.7906976744186 Comments: All three of the concepts listed above relate to the topic of visual illusions. These illusions work because of the way that our mind do more with the visual information than just process what is present. This approach to perception that focuses on the actions of the mind during this process is called the constructivist approach. 41. If you find something by a preattentive process, which of the following is true? A. It gains your attention slowly and gradually. B. It is similar to many other objects in the display. *C. You find it as fast among many other objects as compared to among a few. D. You find it by a top-down process. % Correct: 44.1860465116279 Comments: Preattentive processing involves sub-conscious accumulation of information from the environment. It allows us to react to stimuli in a very quick manner. In fact, it allows us to react to something in a very complex stimulus in the same speed that we’d react to something found in a simple one. 42. What do we call the psychologists who study only observable actions? A. Psychoanalysts B. Humanistic psychologists *C. Behaviorists D. Structuralists % Correct: 88.3720930232558 Comments: Behaviorist gained a great deal of popularity in the early 1900’s. Their goal was to move psychology towards the hard sciences. In doing this, they argued that we should focus our attention on observable cause and effect relationships that were often related to the concept of learning. 43. According to the actor-observer effect, whose behavior would you most likely make an external attribution for—assuming you’re from a Western culture? *A. You B. Your close friend C. Someone you just met D. Someone you have seen on television % Correct: 40.6976744186046 Comments: The actor observer effect suggests that we tend to make more and more external attributions for behaviors as we closer and closer to the self. This would imply that we make internal attributions for the majority of actions of strangers, we start to make more external attributions for our friends, and we almost solely make external attributions for our own behaviors. 44. What do humanistic psychologists emphasize? *A. Conscious experiences, values, and beliefs B. The effects of conflicting unconscious thoughts and motivations C. How human behavior evolved from that of other animal species D. Reinforcements of stimulus-response connections % Correct: 73.2558139534884 Comments: Humanistic psychology was introduced by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow a number of decades ago. The focus of this branch of psychology is on how our conscious experiences, values, and beliefs all shape our daily actions, mental health, and aspects of personality. 45. Which of these is a major criticism of the DSM? A. The DSM is based too heavily on the theories of Freud. B. The DSM relies too heavily on genetic testing. *C. Most people do not fit neatly into any of the DSM categories. D. The DSM offers too few choices of diagnosis. % Correct: 77.9069767441861 Comments: The diagnostics and statistical manual of mental disorders is used by clinicians when they attempt to categorize and diagnose the abnormal behaviors and thoughts displayed by individuals. Though it has become an invaluable tool over the past few decades, many critics of the manual still worry about a series of issues related to the manual. One of the biggest concerns lies in the conflict between our assumptions that the manual’s categories are absolute. In reality, they are arbitrarily defined, with people rarely fitting nicely into a specific diagnosis category. 46. If you look back on this class in a year and recall the exact moment that you answered this question, you would be accessing something stored in your A. implicit memory. B. short-term memory. C. semantic memory. *D. episodic memory. % Correct: 83.7209302325581 Comments: Explicit memory is defined as memory that we can express through some verbal description. It usually separated into two different types. One explicit memory is semantic. This semantic memory is defined as detailed, general memories that aren’t tied to a specific event/experience. The other type of explicit memory is an episodic memory. These memories are detailed memories that are paired with a specific place and time. That is what we see in the question description above. 47. Research on state-dependent memory would suggest that in comparison to the alternative, your performance on this exam would be ___________ if the conditions that you are in while taking the exam were similar to those that you were in while you studied for it. *A. better B. worse C. exactly the same D. better for difficult material, worse for easy material % Correct: 86.046511627907 Comments: State-dependent memory suggests that we can best recall information learned during an event if we can recreate the environment experienced during learning when we are being asked to recall the information. 48. A researcher asks people to drink coffee before or after reading an essay, and later compares the memory of the two groups. What is the dependent variable in this experiment? A. The time of drinking coffee B. The nature of the essay *C. The memory performances D. The brand of coffee % Correct: 79.0697674418605 Comments: In experimental research, one variable is manipulated in order to see how that manipulation impacts performance on a second variable. The manipulated variable is called the independent variable. The variable measured across groups to see if the manipulation had an effect is called the dependent variable. For this example, that means that the dependent variable is the memory test performance scores. 49. The concept of a “prototype” is a critical component in the debate about the topic of A. perception. B. memory. *C. categorization. D. developmental psychology. % Correct: 68.6046511627907 Comments: Prototypes might be a topic that can be loosely applied to a number of other topics in psychology, but they are most often discussed within the context of categorization research. In particular, a prototype is a general example of a member of a category that can be used to determine category membership for new potential members. 50. Based on the hierarchical structure of language, which term fits between Words and Phonemes? A. phrases B. nouns *C. morphemes D. articles % Correct: 68.6046511627907 Comments: Phonemes are basic sounds. Words use the combination of sounds that are parts of different elements of meaning that combine into spoken or written units. The elements of meaning that come from phonemes are called morphemes.