Cross-sectional Study Exam Answer Key

1. An investigator compares the drawings of children ranging in age from 5 to 10 (measured at the same time) and reports trends as a function of age. What kind of study is this? *A. cross-sectional B. cross-cultural C. longitudinal D. sequential % Correct: 84 Comments: This is an example of a cross-sectional design experiment. Cross-sectional design studies are often conducted by developmental psychologists in order to see how age (or different cohorts) differ on some psychology related dimension. These research designs can allow the researcher to examine a developmental topic quickly and without the hassle of having to follow a group for an extended period of time. However, concerns over cohort effects or sampling issues are often raised in these types of designs. 2. The people born in the 1990s have different interests and attitudes than the people born in the 1950s. This is due to a difference in A. role diffusion. B. syntax. *C. cohorts. D. assimilation. % Correct: 79 Comments: The term cohort is used to describe a group of individuals born at roughly the same time/era. Because each cohort experiences a different history as they age, many developmental psychologists strongly suggest that there will be a dramatic difference between each generation that has nothing to do with their age differences. These effects are often called cohort effects. 3. Suppose a newborn sucks to turn on a recording of its father’s voice. Eventually the response habituates. Now the experimenters substitute the sound of a different man’s voice. What should we conclude if the sucking rate remains the same? A. The newborn prefers the sound of the father’s voice. B. The newborn hears a difference between the voices. *C. The newborn does not hear a difference between the voices. D. The newborn prefers women’s voices to men’s voices. % Correct: 88 Comments: This question is referencing the topic of habituation/dishabituation that is critical for developmental psychologists studying age groups that are too young to verbally indicate the recognition of stimuli or changes of stimuli. One of the most common measures of habituation/dishabituation involves changes in rates of sucking. Those that use this tool assume that when a child’s rate of sucking a pacifier changes, they’ve attended to something that they consider novel. If something new is presented and they don’t change their rate, this reaction is said to be an indicator of habituation—or no change being noticed. 4. Which of the following would Piaget describe as an egocentric thought? A. "I can sing better than anyone else in my class." *B. "Birds sing so that I can hear them." C. "I want to have more candy than my friends." D. "I think, therefore I exist." % Correct: 75 Comments: Though egocentrism can mean something slightly different as a child ages, the concept of egocentrism introduced by Piaget revolves around the same general topic. In essence, egocentric thinking revolves around the inability to identify that the actions/perceptions of another could potentially be different from or unrelated to oneself. The only response above that has this concept embedded within it is answer B. The other responses do suggest a focus or preference for the self, but they don’t indicate an inability to recognize the independent thoughts/actions of others. 5. An experimenter shows a child two equal glasses of water and then pours the water from one of them into a glass of a different shape. Then the experimenter asks whether the new glass has more or less water than the other one. What concept is the experimenter testing? A. assimilation B. object permanence *C. conservation D. hypothetical reasoning % Correct: 81 Comments: This is one of Jean Piaget’s classic tests for the topic of conservation. Piaget and other developmental psychologists have shown that children up to around 5 to 7 years of age often struggle with the concept of conservation. This means that they cannot recognize that things can change their shape/structure but retain the same amount of matter because nothing was taken away or added to them. 6. Lev Vygotsky would most strongly disagree with which of these statements? A. A child may or may not seem to understand a concept, depending on how we test it. *B. We have to wait for children to discover concepts on their own. C. Children gradually advance through various stages of understanding. D. Certain children are more ready to learn new concepts than others are. % Correct: 65 Comments: Vygotsky was a Russian developmental psychologist that was formulating his theories of cognitive development at nearly the same time as the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Though both researchers focused their attention on cognitive development, Vygostky focused on gradual development across a variety of different cognitive components instead of stages of cognitive development. He firmly believed that children could progress through cognitive challenges at different rates based on their capability of learning a topic (the zone of proximal development) and the instruction provided to that child (scaffolding). 7. According to Erik Erikson, the identity crisis (the question "Who am I?") is of greatest concern to people of what age? A. toddlers B. preschool children C. older adults *D. adolescents % Correct: 88 Comments: Erik Erikson was a developmental psychologist that focused his attention on the topic of identity development. In his theory, Erikson contended that individuals had critical identity based questions that they focused their attention on during different ages. In Erikson’s theory, the question about general identity becomes critical—and eventually resolved—during our adolescent years. 8. Beginning in early childhood, research has indicated that boys and girls differ on average in what? A. their ability to do mathematics B. their ability to learn to play chess *C. their interests, such as toy preferences D. their ability to learn and remember % Correct: 90 Comments: Though other gender differences emerge as men and women reach adolescence—despite the differences being very small—only one big difference in the actions of boys and girls emerges during childhood. This difference lies in the toy and activity preferences that the two genders start to display in the early childhood years. Many of these differences have been attributed to the discriminatory behaviors displayed by parents and other adults who interact with these children. 9. A researcher tests all the students in one college and finds that the first-borns have higher GPAs than later-born children, on average. One possible explanation is that the results reflect the influence of birth order. The other explanation is that the results depend on differences between A. motivated students and unmotivated students. *B. one-child families and larger families. C. longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies. D. left-handers and right-handers. % Correct: 83 Comments: Research on birth order effects have indicated that birth order does seem to relate to a wide variety of different psychology related measures. With that being said, considerable research has also shown that the size of the family that a child is a part of has an equally heavy weight on many of these psychology related measures. Therefore, when a researcher is attributing differences in a measure to birth order, they must also look into how family size might be playing a role in this relationship. 10. When attempting to compare first-born to later-born children, which of these is most important for researchers to consider? A. First-born children are more likely to be girls than boys. *B. Children in one-child families differ from those in larger families. C. Birth-order effects become apparent only after children leave home. D. Birth-order effects are more significant for girls than for boys. % Correct: 95 Comments: This question relates directly to the question above. When researchers are comparing birth order effects, they should always factor family size into their analysis. Many birth order effects have been considerably diminished once family size is taken into account. 11. Many psychologists now argue that parents' actions have little effect on their children's personality. What is the main evidence for this conclusion? *A. Adopted children’s personality correlates poorly with that of the adopting parents. B. Researchers located a gene that controls most personality variations. C. On average, personality does not vary among cultures or generations. D. First-born children differ substantially from later-born children. % Correct: 82 Comments: In all reality, the parent/child correlation in personality traits is low for all forms of parent/child relationships. With that being said, this question is asking about an example that can indicate low shared-environment effects, while also not having to be concerned with genetic effects. The answer listed above that accomplishes this set of requirements is answer A. Adopted children don’t have a genetic overlap with parents, so the only thing that would produce a parent/child overlap in these children is the shared environment. Since there isn’t much of an overlap, these results highlight the importance of unshared environments in the development of personality traits. 12. Of the following terms listed below, which best matches the concept of nature as it is used in the nature/nurture debate? *A. genome B. shared C. unshared D. empiricism % Correct: 87 Comments: The nature/nurture debate in psychology and biology has been raging for over a century. In this debate, researchers attempt to determine if a characteristic can be attributed better to biology or social factors. The nature portion of the debate is tied to the power of biology. The term listed in the responses that has something to do with biology is answer A, the genome. A genome is the complete set of genetic information contained within an individual. 13. If a trait has high heritability, which group of siblings would show the most overlap on this trait? A. di-zygotic twins *B. mono-zygotic twins C. adopted siblings D. traditional siblings % Correct: 85 Comments: this question is examining the topic of genetic impacts on a trait. If something is high in heritability, it means that genetics are a critical player in the development of that trait. This would imply that we’re looking for a sibling pair out of the group that has the most genetic overlap. The sibling pair that has the highest genetic overlap in the group is monozygotic twins. They have roughly a 100% genetic overlap—minus some minor mutations and alterations to the genetic structure during early growth. 14. Terms like “evocation” and “goodness of fit” can both highlight the importance of the ___________ interaction when examining the heritability of traits. *A. person by situation B. person by behavior C. environment by behavior D. person by situation by behavior % Correct: 44 Comments: Evocation is a term used to describe the powerful impact a person can have on their environment that is interacting with them. This impact is generated simply by looking a specific way or being assigned to a specific group. Goodness of fit is a term used to describe the importance of an overlap between an individual and their environment in determining how the environment will impact the individual. Both of these terms can be related to the person by situation interaction discussed in the search for causes of individual differences. 15. With respect to gender dimorphism, which is a concept not discussed when separating out individuals through several mediums? A. identity B. role C. erotic orientation *D. affiliation % Correct: 56 Comments: Terms A through C have all been strongly tied to the topic of gender. Though a high percentage of the population report possessing 1 of the 2 common combinations of these concepts, there is a considerable portion of the population that has less common combinations of these gender related concepts. The only term listed above that hasn’t been tied to the gender dimorphism debate is the term affiliation. 16. Which statement about findings from biological sex research is FALSE? A. sex is determined by the combination of chromosomes in the 23rd pair B. people that are sexed as males almost always have one Y chromosome C. intersex individuals can fall into several different categories based on their chromosome presence and presenting sex organs *D. approximately 5% of the population is believed to be intersex % Correct: 59 Comments: Answers A through C are all true in reference to the topic of biological sex. The answer that is false is answer D. Intersexed individuals are those that have an atypical combination of genetics and reproductive organs. These intersex combinations can be traced to a variety of different sources and can produce a variety of different outcomes. With that being said, these combinations are fairly rare. Reports suggest that roughly .05 percent of the population is intersex. 17. According to Piaget's concept, what is accommodation? A. combining classical conditioning with operant conditioning *B. fitting an old schema to a new object or problem C. understanding that objects continue to exist, even when hidden D. understanding that objects keep their number and volume after changing shape % Correct: 91 Comments: In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, children are thought to progress through a series of different cognitive stages. These stages were said to occur in a natural order for every child. After completed, this progression was said to result in the child thinking like an adult. This process of development was thought to occur as a result of schema formation, conflicts to the schemas formed, and the gradual adjustment of the schemas to address the conflicts. This process of schema alteration was called accommodation by Piaget. 18. Which of Piaget's stages of cognitive development do people reach last (at age 11 or later)? *A. formal operations B. sensorimotor C. concrete operations D. preoperational % Correct: 90 Comments: The order of cognitive development stages in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is as follows: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The sensorimotor stage is said to last from 0 to 2 years of age. The pre-operational stage is said to last from 2 to 7 years of age. The concrete operational stage is said to last from 7 to 11 years of age. Lastly, the formal operational stage is said to last from ages 11 to 15. 19. Which of these does the Strange Situation evaluate? A. the ability of educators to help a child understand new concepts B. which rewards are most effective for a given child C. a child’s ability to follow directions *D. attachment between a child and mother or other adult % Correct: 61 Comments: Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation was designed to assess the attachment types of infants with their primary caregivers. In this experiment children were exposed to a variety of different situations with their primary caregiver and a stranger while in a lab. From the interactions of the child with the primary caregiver, Ainsworth argued that she could determine the attachment type that each child held. 20. Researchers flash a word briefly on a screen, followed by a masking pattern. What is the purpose of the masking pattern? A. To see how fast people can shift attention from one stimulus to another *B. To prevent conscious awareness of the stimulus C. To increase speed of identifying the stimulus D. To shift activity from the left hemisphere to the right hemisphere % Correct: 73 Comments: The masking pattern is thought to help cognitive psychologists looking into the topic of subconscious processing. It allows them to test for detection of a stimulus without having to worry about sensory afterimages playing a role in the perceptual process. In essence, it allows for researchers to explore what was perceived, not what was eventually detected because of the amazing capabilities of some of our sensory organs. 21. What evidence shows that our 24-hour sleep-waking cycle results from a built-in mechanism? A. Some people sleep less than average, without apparent harm. B. Memory improves after sleep. *C. People in a near-polar region generate close to a 24-hour sleep-wake cycle. D. Sleep deprivation impairs both physical and mental health. % Correct: 75 Comments: This question is asking the test taker to identify an answer that allows for us to separate the impact of the sun from our sleep patterns. This question has nothing to do with the impact of sleep— which is what is discussed in several of the responses. The only answer listed above that meets this requirement—and is also true by the way—is answer C. 22. The high-school student who stayed awake for several days A. was near death by the time he slept. B. slept for many days when he finally went to sleep. C. never fully recover until he had several nights of normal sleep. *D. slept longer than usual when he did go to sleep, but was refreshed upon awakening. % Correct: 68 Comments: The very interesting story of Randy Gardner was just as interesting as it was informative on the importance of sleep. Gardner was considered an unusual case before the start of the experiment— this is why he was chosen in the first place. However, even with his abilities to stay awake for long spans, researchers anticipated that he would only go 2 to 3 days without sleep before experiencing cognitive, physical, and emotional breakdowns. He did not display any of these, and only slept a few hours after going over 10 days without sleep. It’s probably important to note that this is NOT something that is suggested for any of you, as sleep impairment might not kill us, but it can hinder cognitive functioning, physical health, and emotion regulation. 23. The term “implicit” is often considered conceptually identical to which of the following terms? A. explicit B. pre-attentive *C. unconscious D. conscious % Correct: 93 Comments: Though Freud championed the idea of the unconscious in his work in the early 1900’s, the term has been reclaimed by cognitive psychologists and has been repurposed. Freud’s unconscious dealt with inner desires and past experiences that were pushing the actions of individuals. The cognitive psychology concept of the unconscious focuses on the actions/perceptions/emotions/etc. that are operating just below our conscious level. The term implicit is often used interchangeably with unconscious when discussing this topic. 24. What is paradoxical about paradoxical sleep? A. The person reports dreams, but there are no rapid eye movements. B. The EEG pattern suggests a dream, but the person denies dreaming. *C. The brain is active, but the muscles are relaxed. D. The brain is inactive, but the muscles are tense. % Correct: 62 Comments: Paradoxical sleep is the term used to define the REM stage of sleep that we undergo several times at night during our sleep cycles. It is defined as paradoxical because of how unique it is in comparison to all of our other stages of sleep. In addition to the rapid eye movement that defines this stage of sleep, scientists have also identified high levels of brain activity and very low levels of physical movement (close to paralysis) during this stage of sleep. This mismatch of functions and their reason for occurring has been a source of debate for sleep researchers. 25. What does the EEG record for stage 4 sleep look like (compared to other stages of sleep)? A. It is relatively flat. B. It contains a large number of short, choppy waves. C. It looks similar to the EEG that is found in people who are awake. *D. It includes many long, slow waves. % Correct: 54 Comments: EEG devices record brain activity through measuring levels of electrical activity near the sensors that are connected to the scalp. High levels of electrical activity are represented by frantic back and forth movement of the EEG recording devices. Low levels of activity are represented by slow moving waves that swing very high and low, with the occasional flutter within the waves. This second pattern of activity is found in individuals engaging in what we call stage 4 of sleep. Actually, this pattern of activity is what psychologists use to define when someone has reached stage 4. 26. Sleep apnea is most commonly experienced by A. adult women. *B. adult men. C. girls under age 12. D. boys under age 12. % Correct: 75 Comments: Sleep apnea is a sleep disorder that is defined by the sudden stopping and starting of breathing during sleep. It impacts sleep quality, causing the sufferer to often wake intermittently throughout the night. Several factors have been tied to the development of this disorder, with it emerging primarily in adult males. This correlation has been attributed to the overlap of several of the factors that are most common in sleep apnea suffers and adult males. 27. Freud referred to the hidden content of dreams, which he said were represented only symbolically, as the __________ content. A. psychoanalytic B. manifest *C. latent D. eclectic % Correct: 51 Comments: This was a definition question. In his attempt to explore aspects of his definition of the unconscious, Freud pursued many different avenues. One of the areas that he looked into was dream interpretation. He believed that our dreams could be a window into the unconscious—but only if they were accessed correctly. His work on dreams sought to decode the content of dreams (the manifest content) in order to access the hidden thoughts and desires that this content represented (the latent content). 28. If a hypnotized person is told not to feel pain during surgery without anesthesia, which of the following outcomes is most likely? *A. The pain sensations still occur, but they are not emotionally distressing. B. The pain receptors do not respond to the cuts. C. The pain receptors carry messages to the spinal cord, but the messages stop there. D. The person feels pain the same as usual, and reacts to it as strongly. % Correct: 82 Comments: Hypnosis research has shown that this altered state of consciousness can greatly reduce reported levels of pain. Later research has suggested that much of this effect lies in inactivity of the brain, not the sensory organ involved in the pain sensing process. This effect re-affirms the notion that our identification of stimuli that we encounter is attributed to our brain, not the sensory organs or nerves that send this information to the brain. 29. What does the “biopsychosocial model” of abnormal behavior mean? A. Each disorder depends on either biological, psychological, or social problems. *B. Each disorder results from a combination of biological, psychological, and social problems. C. Someone who has a biological disorder can overcome it by psychological and social interventions. D. Biological interventions can overcome psychological or social problems. % Correct: 85 Comments: Over the history of clinical psychology, theorists and scientists have attempted to determine the cause of abnormal behaviors and thoughts. Mental issues have historically been tied to spiritual, biological, social, and cognitive based issues. In recent decades, the biopsychosocial model has replaced many of the previous theories that were used in the past. It suggests that clinical issues that impact behavior and cognitions come from a combination of biological predispositions/structures, social/environmental factors, and mental processes. 30. Which of the following is an example of a “personality disorder”? A. depression B. generalized anxiety disorder *C. narcissism D. bipolar disorder % Correct: 41 Comments: Personality disorders are defined as a type of clinical abnormality. They are different from the commonly discussed clinical disorders in that a) they are integrated into the person’s personality, b) they are much longer lasting, and c) they are often seen by those diagnosed with these disorders as not being an issue—or something that can be overcome. Several different types of personality disorders have been defined over the years. The one on the list above that is defined as a personality disorder is narcissism—sometimes called narcissistic personality disorder. This personality disorder has garnered a lot of attention in recent years as psychologists have begun to explore the possibility of an explosion in the prevalence of this disorder. 31. Panic disorder is frequently linked with what other disorder? A. obsessive-compulsive disorder *B. social phobia C. dissociative identity disorder D. conversion disorder % Correct: 69 Comments: Panic disorder is a mental disorder that is defined by the random occurrence of panic attacks. These panic attacks overwhelm the person in a variety of different ways. In the beginning of the manifestation of this disorder, these panic attacks pop up randomly—this is actually required for the symptoms to be categorized as indicative of panic disorder. Over time, people with this disorder often attempt to link the panic attacks with a cause. In doing this, a strong fear of something or some environment often appears. The most common phobia that appears after this occurs is social phobia. 32. When John B. Watson tried to show that phobias develop by classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus was _____ and the unconditioned stimulus was _____. *A. a white rat... a loud noise B. a loud noise... a white rat C. a white rat... fear D. a loud noise... fear % Correct: 45 Comments: This question is referencing the famous research study done by Watson on Little Baby Albert. In this study, Watson wanted to prove that phobias could be developed through simple behavioral mechanisms—in this case, classical conditioning. Watson exposed Albert to a plethora of stimuli, but eventually ended up exposing him to a little white rat. After allowing Albert to look at the rat, a loud noise was then played right next to Albert. After several pairings of the rat with the loud noise, Albert began to develop a strong aversion to the white rat—and anything white and fluffy for that matter. 33. In clinical psychology, a repetitive, almost irresistible action is known as A. an obsession. *B. a compulsion. C. a fugue. D. a somatization. % Correct: 67 Comments: This question is referencing the symptoms of obsessive compulsive disorder. Obsessive compulsive disorder is highlighted by the existence of two prominent symptoms: obsessions—the repetitive, almost irresistible thoughts, and compulsions—the repetitive, almost irresistible actions that come from these thoughts. This disorder can manifest itself in a variety of different behavioral symptoms (cleaning, checking, organizing, etc.), but they all are defined by their obsessions and compulsions. 34. What type of research indicates a probable genetic tendency toward alcoholism? A. examination of brain development B. comparisons of cohorts born in different eras *C. studies of twins D. comparisons of different cultures % Correct: 78 Comments: All of the research approaches listed above can be used by researchers to help determine the causes of alcoholism—or at least the differences between those that develop the disorder and those that do not. However, the only response above that allows researchers to examine the topic of genetics is answer C. It is worth noting that sibling studies have indicated that alcoholism can be tied to a genetic predisposition, but other factors are also of critical importance. 35. What is the relationship between a gambling addiction and dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens? A. Gambling automatically releases dopamine for everyone. B. We can tell someone will develop a gambling addiction if the first gamble releases dopamine. *C. After someone develops a gambling addiction, it increases release of dopamine. D. Many people develop a gambling addiction even though it does not release dopamine. % Correct: 61 Comments: Like almost all impulse control disorders, the power of many of the impulsive drives comes at least partially from activity in the nucleus accumbens. In particular, when engaging in the addictive behavior—or when taking an addictive substance—neurons in the nucleus accumbens that use dopamine become extremely active. This activity is believed to be the neural manifestation of a very strong pleasure response. 36. Most depressed people have abnormalities in their A. procedural memories. B. abilities to taste and smell. *C. sleep patterns. D. language comprehension. % Correct: 90 Comments: Though depression impacts a wide range of different symptoms—and these symptoms can vary from individual to individual—the only symptom listed above that has been statistically linked to depression is answer C. It is worth noting that these sleep abnormalities can manifest themselves in a variety of different ways. Some individuals sleep too much, some have very erratic sleep, others struggle to sleep, and some feel tired at random times throughout the night. 37. Cognitive therapy combats depression by teaching people to do what? A. take their medications consistently *B. interpret ambiguous situations in a more optimistic way C. get more relaxation and sleep D. remember all the childhood experiences that may have caused repression % Correct: 84 Comments: Cognitive therapy is a clinical approach that focuses on altering the interpretations and cognitions of the individual seeking help. The assumption of cognitive therapists is that our general thoughts about either the situation or the self/world/future are a key cause of many of the abnormal symptoms being displayed. To correct this issue, cognitive psychologists attempt to challenge and alter these thought patterns. 38. Of the following disorders, which is the LEAST common? *A. schizophrenia B. major depression C. substance abuse D. anxiety disorders % Correct: 93 Comments: Though questions about the prevalence of disorders can sometimes be difficult, this one was made easier by comparing two extremely common disorders and an entire disorder category to a very uncommon mental disorder. Though schizophrenia is much more noticeable in comparison to many of the disorders mentioned above—and in general for that matter—schizophrenia is only diagnosed in about 1% of individuals. Moreover, this disorder is even less diagnosed in third world countries. 39. In comparison to antidepressant drugs, what is an advantage of psychotherapy? A. It produces benefits more quickly. B. It provides benefits to almost all patients. *C. Its benefits are more likely to be long-lasting. D. It is less expensive and more likely to be covered by insurance. % Correct: 97 Comments: The debate over the best method of treatment for a wide range of different disorders is heated. Though many currently in the field of clinical psychology would contend that a combination of psychotherapy and drug treatment is better than either alone, some firmly believe that one should be used instead of the other. When drugs are used as the sole means of treating a disorder, there are major issues with the long-term effects of these drugs once someone stops taking them. Though the long-term effects of psychotherapy have come into question as well, many see the effects of this approach as significantly longer lasting than drug therapies. 40. A therapist who combines various methods, depending on a client’s needs, has historically been said to be *A. eclectic. B. paradoxical. C. psychoanalytic. D. cognitive. % Correct: 51 Comments: Though the term eclectic therapy has started to become taboo in clinical psychology, it historically has been used to describe an approach to therapy that integrates various psychotherapy methods in an attempt to help a client. The issue with this word stems from the assumption that many people who define themselves as eclectic, might simply have no clear-cut strategy, so they just randomly try things out to see if they work. There are almost certainly some out there that do this, but the eclectic approach has proven to be very effective when utilized correctly. 41. Research on psychotherapy supports which of these conclusions? *A. Many types of therapy are about equal in effectiveness, with social cognitive approaches usually being more effective than most. B. Person-centered therapy is the most effective form of therapy. C. Psychoanalysis is the most effective form of therapy. D. Psychotherapy is almost totally ineffective. % Correct: 78 Comments: The effectiveness of different types of psychotherapy is thought to often be very client contingent. There is also a large difference in treatment effectiveness across the various disorders. However, with both of those statements being said, the effectiveness rates of CBT, or social-cognitive approaches, has proven to be very effective across a wide range of different clinical psychology linked disorders in statistical comparison tests. 42. What does deinstitutionalization mean? *A. the removal of patients from mental hospitals. B. a complete mental breakdown. C. reduction of the amount of paperwork required for insurance coverage. D. providing drug treatment instead of psychotherapy. % Correct: 93 Comments: The term deinstitutionalization was much more commonly known a few decades ago when there was a plethora of mental health facilities across the country and world. With the introduction of new drugs, the change in many government funding plans, and the history of ethical concerns that have dogged past institutions, these facilities have become increasingly rare. With that being said, the definition of what deinstitutionalization still remains the same in today’s field of clinical psychology. 43. In the merge between clinical psychology and the law, what does the term “insanity” refer to? *A. the defendant's state of mind at the time of the crime B. the defendant's state of mind during the trial C. the nature of the crime itself D. the diagnosis given by a psychiatrist or psychologist % Correct: 63 Comments: This question is referencing the world of forensic psychology. Though many think of forensic psychologists as crime solvers, most that work in this field focus their attention on the subject of law and clinical psychology. One of the common topics that they are asked to assess is the issue of sanity in different court cases. As the key indicates, the concept of sanity relates to the state of mind of an individual---primarily at the time of the crime—that is being prosecuted in a trial. 44. Many of the symptoms of schizophrenia can be classified as A. neuroses. *B. psychoses. C. somatoforms. D. personality disorder related. % Correct: 67 Comments: The symptoms of schizophrenia can come in a variety of different forms. Moreover, these symptoms often produce side effects that could almost be considered symptoms of the own. However, if we are simply looking at what defines something as a symptom of schizophrenia, we’re looking at what is known as a psychosis. Psychoses are the mental breaks from reality that are linked to a small number of disorders—with schizophrenia being the most commonly linked disorder. 45. A researcher testing the memory of his clients diagnosed with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder would be identified as a A. eclectic therapist. B. biological psychotherapist. *C. experimental psychopathologist. D. humanist. % Correct: 81 Comments: Researchers are interested in comparing individuals classified with different disorders—or comparing those that have been diagnosed with a disorder to those that haven’t—are called experimental psychopathologists. The range of interests that we find in this group of researchers is vast. Some attempt to use their research to find a cause for a disorder, others look for overlaps, some look at the impacts that the clinical symptoms have on other aspects of mental life, and some look at different treatment options through some type of statistical analysis. 46. Which statement about the relationship between a mental disorder diagnosis and performance on some type of an experimental task is true? A. there are relationships between cognitive performance tasks and psychosis related disorders, but no overlaps in responses to environments and neurosis related disorders B. there are no relationships between cognitive performance tasks and psychosis related disorders, but there are large overlaps in responses to environments and neurosis related disorders C. both neurosis and psychosis related disorders have not been tied to differential performances on any tasks that don’t relate directly to the disorder *D. there is a large overlap between neurosis and psychosis related disorders and differential performances on tasks that don’t appear to relate directly to the disorder on the surface % Correct: 72 Comments: Though most discussions have focused on the impact of disorder symptoms of individuals, experimental psychopathologists have shown the wide range of skills and cognitive abilities that seem to also be altered in those that been diagnosed with a disorder. The challenge for researchers examining these overlaps is to try to determine a link or cause to these overlapping differences that are being discovered. We are very limited in our understanding about these overlaps at this time, but there is hope that research like this might provide us with some very valuable insights into the cause and potential treatments of a variety of different mental disorders. 47. In the diathesis-stress model, this particular exam that you are taking would be put into the _______ category. A. interactive B. diathesis *C. stress D. resolution % Correct: 78 Comments: The diathesis stress model of mental health suggests that abnormal thoughts and behaviors come from a combination of a biological predisposition (genes, neural structures, etc.) and environmental factors (developed social norms, learned responses, etc.). The biological predispositions are defined as the diathesis portion of this model. The social factors are defined as the stress portion of the model. Since the question about the exam is focusing on the impact of an environmental factor, we would call this exam part of the stress portion of the model. 48. When discussing the effectiveness of different therapeutic techniques, the concepts of _________ were used to compare the effectiveness of each approach. A. correlations *B. effect sizes C. happiness ratings D. drug responsiveness % Correct: 48 Comments: This question relates to a concept that is critical in several areas of research. The concept of effect sizes allows researchers to combine the results of a wide range of studies into something called a meta-analysis. These specialized analyses allow the researcher to explore the overall effect of something across a wider range of manipulations and samples. It increases sample sizes, helps control for sampling biases, and even reduces the likelihood of effects being simply du to chance. 49. Karen is seeing a therapist that is allowing her to explore her own thoughts and desires without interrupting Karen or directing the conversation too much. He is also trying to create a warm and welcoming environment for Karen in the therapeutic sessions. These details suggest that Karen is currently seeing a ______ therapist. A. psychodynamic B. social cognitive *C. humanistic D. eclectic % Correct: 77 Comments: This describes what is called client-centered therapy. It is a technique used by humanistic therapists. In doing this, the therapist is attempting to let the client be their own best source of therapeutic paths. Though some that receive this therapeutic approach report not liking it, others have indicated that it resonates well with them. Regardless of its popularity, questions have been raised about its effectiveness. For some disorders, it has proven to be useful. For others, it has not had much of a lasting effect. 50. In terms of long-term impact on someone’s life (based on “life-years lost”), which of the following lists is the correct order from most impactful to least based on the Murray and Lopez study conducted in 1996? *A. cardiovascular, mental, infectious, drug B. mental, cardiovascular, drug, infectious C. mental, drug, infectious, cardiovascular D. drug, infectious, cardiovascular, mental % Correct: 42 Comments: Though many of you wanted to answer B or C, mental health diagnoses come in second to cardiovascular disease in “life-years lost”. This topic was discussed in the very last presentation. In it, we examined the stigma and impact on the individual that came along with a diagnosis of a clinical disorder. This study done by Murray and Lopez really highlights how impactful a diagnosis of a mental disorder can be on an individual’s life. We often think of it as a relief in that it gives someone a sense of what is wrong with them, but research has suggested that the label and lasting impact of these diagnoses can often outweigh the relief. Final Exam 1. According to adherents of determinism, why is it hard to predict people's behavior accurately? A. People have a free will. B. Some behaviors have causes but others do not. *C. Some behaviors have many complex causes. D. The experimental method is appropriate only for the physical sciences. % Correct: 60 Comments: The determinism versus free will debate asks about the cause of our actions—and our ability to act independently of the situation and past experiences. Determinists contend that almost all behaviors can be whittled down to a cause/effect relationship between the current environment, past exposures, and the individual. Free will theorists argue that our conscious thoughts and other aspects of the mind can allow for us to display behaviors that are completely independent of the situation. 2. The nature-nurture issue concerns the relationship between A. mind and brain. *B. heredity and environment. C. free will and determinism. D. conscious and unconscious. % Correct: 99 Comments: The nature versus nurture debate focuses on determining the source of individual differences that emerge amongst people. Nature advocates focus on the biological (mostly genetic) determinants of our individual differences. Nurture advocates focus on the social factors that have played a role in the development of our individual differences. In the past, people would often get into one camp or another. In today’s research on the topic, many look at the proportion of the two when explaining individuals. 3. In the earliest days of psychology (1880-), what was the main research emphasis? A. helping people with emotional disorders *B. understanding sensation and perception C. helping people recover from brain damage D. understanding the difference between conscious and unconscious motives % Correct: 73 Comments: Because of our limited ability to measure different aspects of the mind—as well as our insistence to make psychology aligned with the other hard sciences of the era—early psychologists focused their research on the topics of sensation and perception. Their research studies were very simplistic in nature, but this goal is understandable when you consider the how limited their tools of research actually were. Many of the statistical analyses that today’s researchers use was not available at the time, and the technology to even conduct these analyses was not available. 4. A study of the relationship between two variables that the investigator does not control is a A. single-blind experiment. B. double-blind experiment. *C. correlational study. D. case history. % Correct: 67 Comments: This question has no information relating to the distinction between single- and doubleblind studies. The answer appears to be distinguishing between the difference of an experimental and a correlational study. Since correlational studies focus on the overlap between variables, this example is called a correlational study. If the example was discussing the comparison of groups where a manipulation was made, it would be labelled as an experimental study. 5. In what situation when conducting statistical analyses is the median better than the mean for representing most scores? A. when all of the scores cluster around the mean B. when the scores are arranged in a normal distribution *C. when there are some extreme scores D. when there are no very low or very high scores % Correct: 82 Comments: Though the mean is used in almost every statistical analysis of researchers, there are some instances where the median is more informational than the mean. The classic case for when this is true is when there are extreme outliers in a study. Outliers are scores that differ greatly from the majority of the population. When these outliers are added to a group, they have a large pull on the mean of the group—while simultaneously having almost no pull on the median. A great example of this is when people calculate the mean income of a group or the median income of the group. Because of the rare individuals that earn millions of dollars each year, the mean income of a group might be fairly high, while the median might be a much more representative indicator of what the vast majority of the group earns. 6. What happens at a synapse? A. something very synful B. storage of nutrients for later use *C. release of a chemical that affects another cell D. increased production of myelin % Correct: 99 Comments: This question is referencing the biological structures of our nervous system. The synapse— sometimes referred to as the synaptic cleft—is the small gap between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of another cell. Within this synapse, the messenger cell communicates with the receiving cell by releasing a chemical called a neurotransmitter. This neurotransmitter can either excite or inhibit the receiving cell. 7. The central nervous system consists of A. the brain. *B. the brain and spinal cord. C. the brain, spinal cord, and nerves that carry messages to and from the periphery. D. the spinal cord and the nerves that carry messages to and from the periphery. % Correct: 68 Comments: Our nervous system can be broken up into many different parts. One of the first separations that is often done is between the central and peripheral nervous systems. The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord to the body. The central nervous system consists of the nuclei contained within the brain and spinal cord. 8. Which lobe of the cortex processes touch sensation and the location of objects in space? A. frontal B. temporal *C. parietal D. occipital % Correct: 50 Comments: Each of our four lobes in the brain are critical in the functioning of our mind. The occipital lobe is linked to vision, the temporal lobe is lined to hearing, the frontal lobe to movement, and the parietal lobe is linked to touch. The main area of the parietal lobe that is linked to touch is called the primary somatosensory cortex. There are also several other areas of the parietal lobe that can help with other tactile information—like our sense of orientation. 9. The left hemisphere of the cortex receives input from the ____ side of the body and controls muscles on the ____ side of the body. A. left... left B. left... right C. right... left *D. right... right % Correct: 85 Comments: This question is referencing the topic of contralateral communication. In it, we can see how our hemispheres of the brain are often linked to the activation and sensations of the opposite side of the body (and visual field). Namely, your left hemisphere is often responsible for all of the senses and actions on the right side of our body—and vice versa for the right hemisphere. 10. An X-linked recessive gene has greater effects on whom? A. adults more than children B. children more than adults *C. men more than women D. women more than men % Correct: 52 Comments: The X chromosome is found on the 23rd chromosome pair of human beings. Genetic males contain 1 X and 1 Y chromosome. Genetic females contain a pair of X chromosomes. Recessive genes are ones that only manifest themselves if there isn’t a dominant gene to counter their effects. If a recessive gene is found only on the X chromosome, it would mean that this chromosome will manifest itself in all males that possess the gene—since they only have on X chromosome. It will only manifest itself in females that have the recessive gene in BOTH of their X chromosomes. 11. A belief in monism predicts which of the following? A. People who are poor at one mental ability are probably above average at another. B. Most mental illnesses can be traced to unconscious thoughts and emotions. *C. If you lose part of your brain, you lose part of your mind. D. Average intelligence will tend to increase from one generation to the next. % Correct: 61 Comments: Monism in neuroscience is defined as the belief that each aspect of the mind is housed in a particular area of the brain. The answer above that reflects this notion is answer C. None of the other effects indicate a 1 to 1 relationship between an aspect of the mind and a part of the brain. 12. Of the following, which is a behaviorist most likely to study? A. unconscious thought processes *B. animal learning C. repressed memories D. higher motives, including self-actualization % Correct: 55 Comments: Behaviorism was a branch of psychology formed in the early 1900’s. It was partially based on the aim to return the field of psychology to the hard sciences, but it also came from a desire to focus research on the topic of learning. To study a variety of different learning principles that could theoretically be tied to a number of species, behaviorists often studied a specific animal in a learning environment in order to show how their behavior could be changed as a result of this exposure. These results were then often tied to how these findings could be tied to human learning as well. 13. In Pavlov’s experiment on classically conditioning salivation to a sound, what procedure produces extinction? *A. Repeatedly present the sound without food. B. Repeatedly present the food without the sound. C. Present the sound without food, and then wait a long time before testing again. D. Present a similar sound without food. % Correct: 83 Comments: Classical conditioning involves the development of a conditioned reflex through the pairing of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned reflex. In simpler terms, classical conditioning involves introducing a stimulus (a bell) right before another stimulus that produces an automatic reaction (a shock causing someone to jump). Over time, that new stimulus (the bell) begins to produce a reaction even before the stimulus that produces the automatic reaction is even presented (jumping to the bell). To break this tie, the new stimulus (the bell) needs to repeatedly be presented on its own (without the shock following the bell). 14. What do positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement have in common with each other? A. They both depend on the presentation of a desirable stimulus. B. They both depend on the presentation of an undesirable stimulus. C. They both weaken a behavior. *D. They both strengthen a behavior. % Correct: 84 Comments: This question is referencing the various types of operant conditioning that can be presented. The individual credited with defining these types of conditioning was BF Skinner. Skinner contended that behavior could be changed by a variety of different consequences, but the consequences could be further defined by their nature and impact that they had on behavior. Though negative and positive reinforcers are different in the type of consequence that is introduced, they are both reinforcers. This means that their end result will be that the behavior being reinforced will occur more often as a result of their being utilized. 15. You enjoy getting e-mail messages, so you occasionally check your e-mail to find out if you have any new messages. Which schedule of reinforcement is present in this case? A. fixed ratio B. variable ratio C. fixed interval *D. variable interval % Correct: 68 Comments: Since the number of times that you check will not impact the presence of an email, this schedule is NOT a ratio schedule. It is an interval schedule. Since the amount of time that passes between emails will vary from time to time (it’s not like you get an email exactly every 5 minutes), we call this schedule of reinforcement variable. Put those two concepts together and you have a variable interval schedule. 16. As opposed to an instinct, a taxis is more A. short-lived. B. based on higher cognition. C. individualized. *D. complex. % Correct: 32 Comments: This question was referencing the different automatic responses that can be produced by stimuli—learning is not required for any of them. When discussing this topic, researchers often distinguish between reflexes, taxis, and instincts. Instincts are the most complex automatic reactions to stimuli. They often require a variety of different stimuli to be activated, and when they are, they activate a wide range of behaviors over a long period of time. A taxis is a much more simplistic response to either one or a small number of stimuli that is not nearly as sustained. 17. Most school learning is an attempt to learn from the experiences and discoveries of others. This kind of learning is called A. behavior modification. B. operant conditioning. C. classical conditioning. *D. social learning. % Correct: 91 Comments: Many behaviorist focus their attention on basic learning principles that can be stripped down to stimulus response relationships. However, when looking at human learning, we see this learning environment as much more complex. There are experiences of others, individual interpretations, and long-term goals that all shape the learning that we experience. This much more complex form of learning in our social environment is called social learning. 18. Where are the receptors in the eye that the electromagnetic energy represented as light must strike, in order for you to see it? A. in the pupil B. in the cornea C. in the visual cortex *D. in the retina % Correct: 79 Comments: Though several structures of the eye are critical in the transmission of electromagnetic energy in our environment into the eye, the only structure that contains the cells that can convert this energy into a neurological signal is the retina. This retina contains a collection of cells called rods (located throughout) and cones (located in an are found the center of the retina that is called the fovea). Rods detect dim light and movement, cones detect fine details and color. 19. According to the trichromatic theory, how can we tell the difference between bright yellow-green and dim yellow-green? A. Bright yellow-green excites a different receptor. B. Bright yellow-green excites the three receptors in a different ratio. C. Bright yellow-green excites rods as well as cones. *D. Bright yellow-green excites the same receptors, but more strongly. % Correct: 38 Comments: The trichromatic theory of color vision suggests that we have three types of cones in our eyes that in conjunction allow us to determine the colors in our visible color spectrum. In essence our brain interprets the varying degrees of activity by these cones in order to determine the color that the three sets of cones in an area of the eye are detecting. As we move up or down the color spectrum (like in the example) the ratio of activity between the cells will alter as the cells detect more or less of the bandwidth of light to which they are sensitive. 20. Which of the following contains the hair receptors responsible for hearing? A. fovea B. vestibule C. cornea *D. cochlea % Correct: 82 Comments: This question should have been extremely easy. The fovea and cornea are structures located in the eye—not something that helps us with hearing. This leaves two options, the vestibule and the cochlea. The cochlea, which looks like a snail shell, is located in the inner ear of our heads. If functioning properly, vibrations from the change in air pressure will move a small strip of flesh and the fluid around it to bend tiny hair follicles in this cochlea. That movement of these hair follicles is what begins the neural activity in our body that eventually ends in our perception of sounds. 21. In a stimulus detection test, if a stimulus is slightly weaker than the absolute sensory threshold, how often would we expect a person to be able to identify its presence? A. never B. never consciously, but almost always at an unconscious level C. about 75% of the time *D. a little less than half the time % Correct: 78 Comments: This is a sensory detection question. The absolute sensory threshold is defined as the point where we begin to sense a stimulus when it is presented at a rate just above chance. Since this question is asking about a stimulus that is below this threshold, we’re looking at a situation where the stimulus is not being detected at level that is above chance—though it will be just a bit below chance (50% of the time). 22. Which expression of processing refers to the idea of using experience and expectations to guide vision? A. inside-out B. forward-backward C. bottom-up *D. top-down % Correct: 67 Comments: The top-down/bottom-up distinction of perception is very interesting. Though early theorists often debated if perception was a result of one or the other, most current psychologists study how the two work in conjunction during our perceptual processes. The act of using past experiences and expectations to determine what we’re perceiving is the definition of top-down processing. The act of using the stimuli that are presented during the perceptual process is called bottom-up processing. 23. Professor Yawnmore asks you to write by memory a list of all the recipients of the Nobel Peace Prize. What kind of memory test is this? *A. free recall B. implicit C. recognition D. savings % Correct: 97 Comments: This question is referencing the different means of measuring memory. Though early research on memory focused on just one test of memory (free recall), other tests of memory were eventually introduced. Once these tests became commonly used, we were able to realize how much more diverse and expansive our memory of information/events could actually be. With that being said, this question is referencing an example of what is defined as a free recall test. 24. One unusual feature of implicit memory is that A. implicit memory grows stronger after the passage of time. *B. people can display implicit memory without realizing that they are using memory. C. implicit memory is absent in infancy and begins to develop after about age five. D. brain damage is more likely to impair implicit memory than any other memory type. % Correct: 95 Comments: Memory researchers contend that memory actually exists in a variety of different forms. Though it is often challenging to distinguish between these types of memory in more than just definitions, one of the classifications of memory types that we have been able to separate out in testing is the difference between implicit and explicit memories. Implicit memories are defined as memories that impact behaviors or biological reactions to a stimulus that need not occur at the conscious level. Though many of these implicit memories are often tied directly to explicit memories, there are the occasional moments where stimuli can activate an implicit memory (indicated through some type of physiological reaction) without activating an explicit memory (indicated through some verbal report of the memory). 25. Which of the following is most characteristic of short-term memory? A. does not begin to develop until children are about 10 years old B. tends to improve over a delay C. pertains only to motor skills *D. holds only about 7 items % Correct: 95 Comments: Short-term memory is a very complex term that we use to describe the memory that we utilize in a given situation to help us deal with the critical information at hand. Short-term memories can consist of current and past information that the person is dealing with. In the statements above, only one of them is true of short-term memory. That is answer D. Short term memory researchers have shown that almost everyone’s short-term memory capacity of information to deal with at a given time is somewhere around 5 to 9 items. Mnemonic devices can sometimes enhance the amount of information that is reported in STM tests, but these tricks do not increase the overall capacity, just the way that information is stored/accessed in the head. 26. The depth-of-processing principle distinguishes between A. short-term and sensory memory. *B. strengths of various long-term memories. C. the location in the brain in which various memories are stored. D. retroactive and proactive interference. % Correct: 67 Comments: The depth-of-processing model helps predict retention rates of information based on the depth of processing that a person is using. Though defining what “deep” processing actually means has been challenging, the model has proven to be a very effective tool when predicting how individuals can get larger amounts of information from their short-term memory to their long-term memory. 27. Which of these was true of the patient H.M.? A. His memory problems resulted from a stroke that damaged his frontal cortex. B. He could not remember anything he had learned before the onset of his amnesia. C. He lost all short-term memory and implicit memory. *D. His main deficit was an inability to form new long-term memories. % Correct: 73 Comments: HM is a famous patient in psychology’s history because of the damage that he suffered to his hippocampus. We knew long before his injury that the hippocampus was linked to memory. However, it wasn’t until his damage to a particular region of this portion of the brain that we learned about the importance of the consolidation process when getting information from STM to LTM. In essence, HM could retain just as much information in his STM as most people, but he lost the ability to generate new explicit long-term memories after the trauma to his brain. 28. People often fail to notice something that occurs slowly, or while they are blinking their eyes or while moving their eyes. What is this phenomenon called? A. the attentional blink B. the Stroop effect *C. change blindness D. the representativeness heuristic % Correct: 67 Comments: Change blindness is a very interesting phenomenon that was discovered by cognitive psychologists—though social psychologists have found value in this effect as well. As the definition in the question explains, people struggle to notice small changes in their environment. This phenomenon has shown to produce some fairly comical results in several different experiments. 29. When is it better to use heuristics than an algorithm to solve a problem? *A. when there are too many possible hypotheses to test them all B. when it is necessary to get an answer that is precisely accurate C. when it is possible to calculate the correct answer quickly and simply D. when the question concerns physics or chemistry % Correct: 77 Comments: Heuristics and algorithms are the two problem solving techniques that people can use when faced with a challenge. Algorithms are step-by-step processes that will get a person to a solution when presented with a problem, but they are inherently long and tedious to run. Heuristics are shorthand tricks that can get the problem solver to a quick response, but this response might not be the best, and might not actually be achieved in some situations if the heuristic doesn’t work correctly for the problem. For efficiency reasons, answer A explains a very important time when a heuristic would be best for solving a problem. 30. Compared to a “satisficer,” what is an advantage to being a “maximizer”? A. usually make a decision more quickly B. usually more pleased with the decision one has made *C. usually make better decisions, according to objective criteria D. usually stand out in a crowd as being a nonconformist % Correct: 78 Comments: This question is referencing different problem solving approaches. Satificer decisions are those that meet a requirement, even if they aren’t the best decisions to a problem. Maximizer decisions are those that not only meet a requirement, but they’re ones that optimize the outcome in the situation. The catch to these maximizer decisions is that they often require more work and take longer to plan. 31. According to research on the topic of framing, under which circumstances are people most likely to take a gamble? A. in order to gain something of value *B. in order to avoid losing something C. when the possible wins and losses are great D. under all circumstances equally % Correct: 56 Comments: The framing effect suggests that when faced with multiple options, our decisions can be swayed by the way that the options are presented. Specifically, when given a risky decision that has losses and gains involved, we’re more likely to gamble when our attention is focused on the losses, and more likely to take the sure thing when our attention is focused on the gains. 32. The sentence “Convicted prostitutes appeal to Judge Thompson” seems humorous because it has A. no surface structure. B. more than one surface structure. C. only one deep structure. *D. more than one deep structure. % Correct: 70 Comments: Though the sentence is organized in just one way in the example (meaning it has just one surface structure), it can be interpreted in two ways. In one, someone is stating that Judge Thompson finds prostitutes appealing. In the other, someone is stating that there are convicted prostitutes who have decided to appeal their cases to a judge named Thompson. This means that the sentence has two possible deep structures. 33. Who developed the first IQ test? A. Ebbinghaus and Thorndike. *B. Binet and Simon. C. Calkins and Washburn. D. James and Lange. % Correct: 71 Comments: Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon are best known in the psychology literature because of their invention of the first IQ test. Their aim when designing the test was to compare the performance of young children across a wide range of rudimentary intelligence linked tasks. This test was structured in this manner because Binet and Simon were generating this test as a means of detecting those that would struggle in the traditional school setting. Their work was applied to those that excelled, and this concept of comparison became even more important in latter tests, but it was not the main aim of Binet and Simon when they designed their test. 34. If differences among people in their IQ scores are based largely on differences in heredity, what should we expect to find? A. IQ scores should correlate higher for dizygotic twins than for monozygotic twins. *B. IQ scores should correlate higher for monozygotic twins than for dizygotic twins. C. Children reared by their own parents should have higher IQs than do children reared by adoptive parents. D. Children reared by adoptive parents should have higher IQs than do children reared by their own parents. % Correct: 91 Comments: This question is referencing the statistical effects that we should find in heritability research. Even though the question is referencing IQ, it really has more to do with heritability studies. If something is heritable, we would expect to see greater overlaps in the characteristic as the genetic overlap of individuals increases. The answer that matches this effect is answer B. Information on shared environments or special instruction sets is of no value in attempting to answer this question. 35. A psychologist wishes to standardize a new IQ test. What is the first thing she should do? *A. administer the test to a large random sample of the population B. make the content of the test as similar as possible to other tests in the field C. ask a number of experts in the field for their opinion of the content of the test D. determine the predictive validity of the test % Correct: 56 Comments: Standardization is the process of implementing some type of standard for a test for which everyone taking it can be compared to. In order to accomplish this, information about average scores and spreads of scores on the test must be obtained. There are several other issues that researchers must consider when designing a test, but for standardization purposes, the first step will always revolve around determining the standards—which means sampling a large number of individuals. 36. Which part of the nervous system readies the body for "fight or flight" activities? A. parasympathetic nervous system B. somatic nervous system C. peripheral nervous system *D. sympathetic nervous system % Correct: 73 Comments: This question is referencing the many different sub-systems of our nervous system. The central nervous system and peripheral nervous system is the first separation of our nervous system. We’re looking at an example of something found in the peripheral nervous system. HOWEVER, the peripheral nervous system contains additional systems that don’t have anything to do with the fight or flight activities. That’s because the peripheral nervous system is broken up into the autonomic and somatic nervous system. The fight or flight activities are a part of the autonomic system. HOWEVER, there are parts of the autonomic nervous system that actually activate the opposite of the fight or flight response. The system within the autonomic nervous system that activates this fight or flight response is called the sympathetic nervous system. 37. According to Schachter and Singer's theory of emotions, each emotion reflects A. a unique and recognizable physiological condition. B. a special pattern of neuronal activity in the cerebellum. C. a mental experience unrelated to arousal of the autonomic nervous system. *D. an interpretation of autonomic arousal based on appraisal of the situation. % Correct: 69 Comments: Schacter and Singer were emotion researchers that sought to explain challenges in the previous emotion theories that were examining how we determined the emotions that we were “feeling”. Through a series of different tests, they confirmed that our actions and our biological state were pretty big players in our determination of our emotions. However, they also determined that our appraisal of a situation played an additional role in our determination of the emotion and strength of the emotion that we were experiencing. 38. What did studies of people throughout the world reveal about expression of emotions through facial expressions? A. All the expressions look different from one culture to another. B. All the expressions except smiles look different from one culture to another. C. Although many expressions look the same in other cultures, their meaning differs. *D. Many of the expressions look nearly the same and mean the same in all cultures. % Correct: 90 Comments: Though not all emotions are expressed the same way by people across cultures, researchers have found 6 (and probably more) emotions that are universally expressed by everyone in their face. The six emotions that researchers have focused their attention on are: anger, happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, and disgust. Many have proposed that the universal nature of these emotions suggests that they are biologically predetermined within all of us. 39. What does the Implicit Association Test measure? A. the errors people make in categorizing items B. changes in heart rate, breathing rate, and sweating *C. people’s delays in responding to a stimulus D. the number of words people can generate % Correct: 33 Comments: The implicit association test asks individuals to categorize negative and positive words, along with different groups (varying in race, age, weight, etc.) as quickly as possible in a sorting task. The IAT measures the number of errors and speed of responses that a person displays in an attempt to detect any biases for/against specific groups of individuals. Though there are many questions about the validity of these tests, the design of these tests is pretty straightforward. 40. Clyde is asked whose behavior depends on consistent personality traits and whose behavior depends on the situation. According to the actor-observer effect, he is most likely to say "depends on the situation" for the behavior of A. his closest friends and relatives. B. people he has never met (such as television performers). *C. himself. D. people he has met a few times. % Correct: 77 Comments: This question is asking about the topic of attributions. The fundamental attribution error that has been discovered by social psychologists has shown that people often attribute the behaviors of others to the person. We call this making an internal attribution. Later research revealed that this does not hold true for when individuals judge their own actions. When people display what is called the actor-observer effect, they tend to blame their own actions on the situation. We call this an external attribution. 41. According to Solomon Asch's studies of conformity *A. the tendency to conform to a group of three is about as large as it is with larger groups. B. it is just as easy to resist conforming when you are a minority of one as when you have an ally. C. people who conformed always claimed that their perceptions had been distorted. D. people do not conform on questions where there is an objective right and wrong. % Correct: 79 Comments: Solomon Asch studied the topic of conformity by having participants judge the length of lines while they were unknowingly placed amongst confederates of the researcher giving incorrect responses. From his study, he was able to deduce a lot about the topic of conformity. For starters, he was able to show that many of us will conform to a group, even when we know that the group is wrong. Follow-ups of his research showed us that there were several factors that could increase/decrease conformity levels of individuals in his experiment. Answer “A” is a statement that has been derived from one of these follow-up studies. 42. Humanistic psychologists try to help people to A. interpret the symbolic meaning of their dreams. B. bring the contents of the unconscious mind into consciousness. *C. reduce the discrepancy between their self-concept and their ideal self. D. understand the unspoken assumptions behind their style of life. % Correct: 71 Comments: Humanistic psychology was an approach to personality and clinical psychology that was introduced to the world by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Focusing on topics like the self, selfactualization, the hierarchy of needs, and person-centered approaches to therapy, Rogers and Maslow were able to provide us with a new perspective on what makes us unique and what motivates us on any given day. This question is referencing one of the very important aspects of this theory—the distinction between different selves. The response in answer C is defined as a major concern to clinicians that are utilizing the humanistic perspective in their therapeutic approaches. 43. Two of the "big five" personality factors are: A. introversion and extraversion. B. honesty and friendliness. C. fear and anger. *D. neuroticism and conscientiousness. % Correct: 80 Comments: The “big five” traits are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Where individuals lie on these three traits is said to be able to determine the majority of the individual differences that we can find amongst people. Though the predictive value of these traits has come into question, many have still celebrated the “big five” as the most parsimonious approach to trait research that exists. 44. In Piaget's terminology, what is it that sometimes gets assimilated and sometimes gets accommodated? A. the child B. a cohort *C. a schema D. an identity % Correct: 89 Comments: Jean Piaget’s research on cognitive development examined the growth in understanding that children displayed as they advanced from infancy to adulthood. He contended that children didn’t just lack the knowledge that adults possessed, but instead, they saw the world in a completely different way. To learn the rules of how the world worked—he called these rules schemas—he said children needed to encounter conflicts to their inaccurate schemas. When they encountered these conflicts to their schemas, he said that they had the option of assimilating this information or accommodating their schemas. The process of accommodating their schemas to match the new information is what he said eventually led people to advancing from infancy to adulthood. 45. Based purely on statistical data that has been reported on the topic, with no individual differences being available for reference, which of the following individuals would probably display the highest degree of openness to experience? A. An only child *B. The third-born in a family of 6 C. The youngest child in a family of 6 D The first-born child in a family of 2 % Correct: 10 Comments: This question referenced research on birth order and family size effects on different traits. In research on this topic, middle-born children were shown to have a slightly higher level of openness to experience versus their siblings—and a larger family size was also shown to have a very small impact as well. 46. Systematic desensitization of a phobia is a method that resembles A. increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system. *B. extinction of a learned avoidance response. C. Adler's concept of social interest. D. Maslow's hierarchy of needs. % Correct: 94 Comments: Systematic desensitization is a treatment that involves the gradual increased exposure to the source of a phobia. In theory, this gradual increased exposure is supposed to allow the sufferer of the disorder to realized that that object of their fear does not warrant that strong of a reaction. Though there is an obvious need for some form of cognitive activity to get this effect to occur, the principles of this practice are based on behavioral mechanisms. 47. If psychologists discuss the "DSM," what are they talking about? A. selection of jurors *B. psychological disorders C. methods of losing weight D. stages of sleep % Correct: 99 Comments: The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (the DSM) is the manual used by most clinicians in the United States and a few other developed countries. It provides clinicians with a set of definitions and statistics about the variety of different disorders and mental health issues that are pertinent to the field at the time. It has undergone several revisions and edits over the years, but the goal of this manual has remained the same since its first version was published in the 1950’s. 48. Maurice has grown up in a tough environment with his parents. They have both been diagnosed with schizophrenia and often treat him very poorly as a result of their related symptoms. A researcher attempting to predict the odds of Maurice developing schizophrenia would categorize his parents as part(s) of ________________ when determining his odds of developing schizophrenia based symptoms. A. the diathesis B. the stress C. the continuum *D. the diathesis and stress % Correct: 57 Comments: The diathesis-stress model of mental health suggests that many disorders or clinical issues come from a byproduct of biological predispositions (the diathesis) and environmental factors (the stress). This situation is describing a situation where the parents are creating an unhealthy environment (the stress) AND providing genes that likely generate a higher proclivity for the development of a disorder (the diathesis). That is why the answer to this question is D. 49. Which of these is an important criticism of DSM? A. It tells therapists exactly how to treat each disorder. B. It requires therapists to perform lab tests before diagnosing a client. C. It draws too few distinctions among disorders. *D. It labels too many people as mentally ill. % Correct: 59 Comments: Though the DSP has been celebrated as a critical tool for clinicians that are attempting to approach the clinical field from a more unified and scientific perspective. It allows for a common language and organized set of information for those attempting to diagnose and/or help those with a wide range of symptoms that can be related to clinical issues. Despite these plusses, many have questions several aspects/impacts of the DSP. One of the more prominent complaints about the DSM has related to the fact that the DSP has a very large number of disorders and symptoms now contained within it. These disorders have become so broadly defined that a very large percentage of the population now qualifies as displaying symptoms that qualify them for being diagnosed with a disorder. Though this high rate of disorders might be accurate, it does seem odd to many that there could be between 1 in 3 and 1 in 2 individuals in the population could be diagnosed with a disorder. 50. How does seasonal affective disorder differ from bipolar disorder? A. Bipolar disorder has a genetic basis. *B. Bipolar disorder includes periods of mania. C. Bipolar disorder occurs mostly in far northern countries. D. Bipolar disorder responds favorably to bright light treatment. % Correct: 54 Comments: Both seasonal affective disorder and bipolar disorder are defined as mood disorders. Both also involve the fluctuation between negative and what could best be defined as “positive” moods. The differences between the two is actually multifaceted. Answers C and D are actually true statements— but they are true of seasonal affective disorder. Answer A is true of bipolar disorder, but there is research that suggests a genetic factor for seasonal affective disorder as well. The only statement that is entirely true is statement B. Though people with seasonal affective disorder report more pleasant moods during the summer months, their mood levels don’t get anywhere near the “manic” level.