Chapter 6: Adolescence

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Coverage: • Adolescence • Growth in Adolescence • Sexual Development • Adolescent Brain • Adolescent Sleep • Adolescent Sexual Activity • Eating Disorders • Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage • Information Processing • Education • School Based Preparatory Experiences • Teenagers and Working • Teenage Drivers • Self-concept and Self-esteem in Adolescence • Erikson: Identity vs. Role Confusion • Parents and Teens: Autonomy and Attachment • Peers • Romantic Relationships Adolescence (Ages 10-18) • • • • • • • Period of Change: Begins with puberty and ends when a person transitions into adulthood. Physical Changes: Triggered by hormones, leading to physical growth and changes. o These changes happen at different rates in the brain and can lead to riskier behavior. Cognitive Changes: Adolescents become better at thinking in complex and abstract ways. Parent Relationships: Teenagers start to seek more independence and redefine their relationship with parents. Peer Relationships: Friendships become more important for support, but sometimes peers can encourage problem behaviors. Identity Formation: Adolescents explore different roles and beliefs to develop their personal identity. Adolescence is a time of growth, change, and discovery in many areas of life, including physical, mental, and social development. Growth in Adolescence Puberty and Growth: • Puberty: A time of rapid physical growth and sexual development, starting around ages 814. o Girls start puberty around age 10. o Boys start about 2 years later. o It takes about 3-4 years for puberty changes to finish. • Physical Growth: Adolescents grow taller and heavier during this time. o Growth order: Growth starts at the extremities (hands, arms, feet) and moves inward to the torso. o Average growth during puberty: 10-11 inches in height and 50-75 pounds in weight. • Uneven Growth: o Head growth happens after the feet, starting with the ears, nose, and lips. o This causes teenagers to sometimes look awkward or out-of-proportion. • Differences Between Boys and Girls: o Before puberty: Boys and girls are similar in height and weight. o After puberty: ▪ Girls tend to be taller between ages 10-14. ▪ Boys become both taller and heavier after age 14. • Body Image: o Height and weight can be sensitive topics for teens, especially with society’s preferences for tall men and short women or thin bodies, especially for girls. o Overweight is a growing problem, often caused by unhealthy diets and lack of physical activity. • Racial and Ethnic Differences: o Asian background: Generally, teens are shorter. o European and North American background: Tend to be taller than Asian teens but shorter than African teens. o Body shapes differ slightly across backgrounds, though these are general trends, and individual differences are common. Sexual Development Primary Sexual Characteristics: • Primary sexual characteristics are changes directly related to reproduction. 1|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT o Boys: ▪ ▪ o Girls: ▪ ▪ ▪ Puberty is happening earlier today than in the past. For example, the average age for a girl’s first period has dropped from 16 to about 13. o Girls: Puberty starts earlier for African American girls compared to AsianAmerican girls. o Boys: It’s harder to track the timing of puberty for boys, but it may be starting earlier too. Effects of Early Puberty: • Girls who start puberty early may face: o Mental health issues: Depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and early sexual behaviors. o They might feel more pressure to act older than they are, and peer comparisons can cause low selfesteem. o They may hang out with older peers who engage in risky behaviors (like substance use). • Boys who mature earlier may: o Experience increased depressive symptoms if they mature faster than their peers. o May struggle with peer relationships, and can be more likely to use drugs or alcohol. Gender Role Intensification: • During puberty, teens may feel pressured to act more gender-typical: o Girls might hide their success in subjects like math or science to be seen as more attractive. o Boys might push themselves to be better at sports to prove their masculinity. o These changes are not the same for everyone, and teens can feel a mix of maturity and childhood behaviors. • Growth of testes, penis, and scrotum. Spermarche: First ejaculation of semen (ages 11-15). Growth of the uterus. Menarche: First menstrual period. Females are born with immature eggs in the ovaries. Each month, one egg ripens and is released. Male Anatomy: • Males have internal and external genitalia for reproduction and sexual activity. o Main organs: Penis and testicles (which produce sperm and semen). o Males constantly produce millions of sperm daily. Female Anatomy: • External genitalia: The vulva, which includes the labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening. • Internal organs: The vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. o The uterus hosts the developing fetus and helps with sperm passage. o Females release eggs from the ovaries each month. If fertilized by sperm, pregnancy can occur. Secondary Sexual Characteristics: • Secondary sexual characteristics signal sexual maturity but aren’t directly linked to reproduction. o Boys: ▪ Broader shoulders, lower voice (larynx growth). ▪ Hair grows in pubic area, underarms, and face. o Girls: ▪ Breast development (around age 10). ▪ Wider hips and hair growth in pubic area and underarms. Acne: • Acne is common due to hormonal changes during puberty. o It happens because of overactive oil glands. o About 85% of teens get acne, and boys tend to get it more than girls. o Acne can cause social withdrawal due to self-consciousness. Puberty Timing: Adolescent Brain Brain Changes During Adolescence: • The brain matures but doesn't get bigger. It becomes more connected and specialized. • Myelination (the coating around brain cells) continues, especially in areas like language. o This helps improve thinking and processing skills. o However, more myelination means less brain plasticity (ability to form new connections). 2|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Synaptic pruning occurs, making the brain thinner but more efficient. Unused connections are "pruned" away. • The corpus callosum, which connects both brain halves, gets thicker, improving communication between brain areas. • The hippocampus (memory center) gets stronger connections to the frontal lobes, helping with decision-making. Limbic System vs. Prefrontal Cortex: • The limbic system (emotion & reward center) develops earlier and is linked to puberty changes. o It’s involved in novelty seeking and peer interactions. • The prefrontal cortex (responsible for controlling impulses, planning, and decisionmaking) is not fully developed until the mid20s. • The "mismatch" between these two systems causes teens to take more risks, make poorer decisions, and have less emotional control. Why Teens Take More Risks: • Dopamine (related to rewards) peaks in adolescence, making the brain more sensitive to rewards than risks. • Adolescents are strongly motivated by social rewards and enjoy the company of peers. o Peer influence increases risky behavior (e.g., risky driving or crime). • Oxytocin (related to bonding) also makes social interactions feel rewarding. • As a result, teens are more likely to seek excitement and peer interaction, which can lead to harmful behavior. Vulnerability to Mental Illness: • The adolescent brain is more vulnerable to mental illness, as many mental health issues begin around this age. o 50% of mental illnesses develop by age 14, and 75% by age 24. • The brain is also sensitive to damage from substances like marijuana, which can affect brain function. Adaptiveness of the Adolescent Brain: • Despite the risks, the adolescent brain’s changes allow teens to: o Seek novelty and new experiences. o Move away from family and develop new relationships. o These changes are adaptive for society, helping teens become independent and connect with others. • Adolescent Sleep How Much Sleep Do Adolescents Need? • Adolescents need 8 to 10 hours of sleep each night to feel and perform their best. • On average, they only get 7 ½ hours per night, which is less than the recommended amount. o Younger adolescents (6th graders) get around 8.4 hours. o Older adolescents (12th graders) get less, about 6.9 hours. Consequences of Not Getting Enough Sleep: • Teens who don’t get enough sleep may experience: o Tiredness and irritability. o Falling asleep in school. o Depressed mood and low energy. o Drinking caffeinated beverages. • Long-term risks include: o Substance abuse. o Car accidents. o Poor academic performance. o Obesity. o Weak immune system. Link Between Sleep and Risky Behavior: • Insufficient sleep can lead to risky behaviors, like engaging in unprotected sex or using substances during sex. • Poor sleep affects impulsivity and decisionmaking, making teens more likely to take risks. Why Don’t Teens Get Enough Sleep? • Factors like: o Homework. o Socializing. o Technology use. o Work. • Also, biological changes: o During puberty, the circadian rhythm (body clock) shifts, making teens feel sleepy later at night and harder to wake up in the morning. o When forced to wake up early, teens don’t function well, affecting attention, behavior, and academic performance. What Can Help? • The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention suggests that schools should start no earlier than 8:30 a.m.. o Unfortunately, 80% of American schools start earlier, around 8:03 a.m.. o Later school start times are linked to better student outcomes, but changes are hard to implement due to scheduling challenges. Sleep Consistency: 3|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • • Teens should avoid: o Too little sleep during the week. o Too much sleep on weekends, as this messes with the body’s natural sleep cycle. Consistent sleep habits are key to avoiding sleep deprivation. Adolescent Sexual Activity Sexual Attraction and Activity in Adolescence: • Around ages 10-11, most children begin to feel sexual attraction to others, which impacts their social life at school and outside. • By the time they finish high school, more than half of adolescents have had sexual intercourse at least once, though the exact number is hard to determine due to privacy. Adolescent Pregnancy: • In 2018, the birth rate for females aged 15–19 was 17.4 per 1,000 women. o Teen pregnancies have decreased significantly over the years: ▪ 58% decline since 2007. ▪ 72% decline since 1991. o Teenagers seem to be less sexually active and those who are active tend to use birth control. Risk Factors for Adolescent Pregnancy: • Lower risk of pregnancy if: o Strong parent-child relationship. o Parental supervision and values against unprotected sex. • Higher risk if: o Living in dangerous neighborhoods. o Coming from a low-income family or single-parent household. o Having older sexually active siblings or a teen parent. o Experiencing early puberty or sexual abuse. Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy: • Teen mothers face many challenges: o Only 40% graduate from high school before having a child. o Without a high school diploma, it’s harder to get a job and gain economic independence. o They are more likely to live in poverty and rely on public assistance. • Children of teen mothers: o 50% more likely to repeat a grade in school. o More likely to perform poorly on tests and drop out of school. Education and Early Parenthood: • Men and women with less education tend to become parents younger. o 70% of men with less than a high school diploma fathered their first child before age 25. o 45% of men with some college education fathered a child before age 25. o 14% of men with a bachelor’s degree or more had their first child before 25. • Similarly, women with more education are likely to become mothers at an older age. Eating Disorders Eating disorders often appear during teenage years or young adulthood. • They affect both genders, but women are 2½ times more likely to have eating disorders. • Men may also experience body image issues, such as muscle dysmorphia (the extreme desire to increase muscle mass). • Eating disorders are found across different racial/ethnic groups but are more common in Non-Hispanic White individuals (specifically anorexia nervosa). Risk Factors: • Eating disorders have genetic, biological, behavioral, psychological, and social causes. • Genetic links: Eating disorders tend to run in families. o Anorexia nervosa shares genetic connections with metabolic traits and other psychiatric disorders. • Brain differences have been noted between women with eating disorders and those without. Common Eating Disorders (based on the DSM-5): • Anorexia Nervosa: o Severe restriction of food intake leading to extremely low body weight. o Intense fear of gaining weight and distorted view of body weight. • Bulimia Nervosa: o Binge eating followed by purging (e.g., vomiting, using laxatives, excessive exercise) to avoid weight gain. o Self-worth is excessively tied to body shape and weight. • Binge-Eating Disorder: o Recurrent episodes of binge eating without compensatory behaviors (no purging, etc.). o Causes distress about binge eating. • 4|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Health Consequences: • Anorexia Nervosa: o Slow heart rate, low blood pressure, and risk of heart failure. o Osteoporosis (bone density loss), muscle weakness, and dehydration. o Highest mortality rate of any psychiatric disorder, often due to starvation or suicide. • Bulimia Nervosa: o Electrolyte imbalances affecting the heart and organs. o Risk of esophagus rupture from frequent vomiting, and tooth decay due to stomach acids. • Binge-Eating Disorder: o Similar risks to obesity, including: ▪ High blood pressure. ▪ High cholesterol. ▪ Heart disease, Type II diabetes, and gall bladder disease. Treatment: • Main goals of treatment are: o Adequate nutrition. o Stopping harmful behaviors like purging. • Treatment may include: o Medical care and nutritional counseling. o Medications (e.g., antidepressants). o Therapy: Individual, group, and family therapy. • Specific therapies: o Maudsley Approach: Parents are actively involved in treating adolescents with anorexia by supervising eating. o Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Helps identify and correct distorted thinking about food, weight, and body image. Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage • • Adolescents can think about abstract concepts like love, freedom, beauty, and morality—things that can't be directly seen or touched. They develop hypothetical-deductive reasoning: o This means they can think through different possibilities and test them out systematically, rather than just guessing or trial-and-error. They can use scientific thinking and make logical conclusions. • Transitivity: Adolescents can understand logical relationships between objects. For example: o If A is shorter than B, and B is shorter than C, then A is shorter than C. o Example: If Maria is shorter than Alicia, and Alicia is shorter than Caitlyn, adolescents can correctly identify who is the shortest. Does Everyone Reach Formal Operations?: • Not everyone fully develops formal operational thinking. o Piaget suggested that people use formal thinking mainly in areas that interest them the most. o In some cultures or communities, formal operational thinking is rarely used because individuals might not face challenges that require it. Adolescent Egocentrism: • Adolescents become very self-focused because they start to think abstractly. • Imaginary Audience: They believe that everyone is as focused on them as they are on themselves. o This can lead to self-consciousness and a desire for privacy. o Social media has increased the feeling of being watched by others. • Personal Fable: Adolescents believe they are unique and invulnerable to harm. o They may engage in risky behaviors like drinking, driving recklessly, or having unsafe sex, thinking that nothing bad will happen to them. Consequences of Formal Operational Thinking: • Greater introspection: Adolescents think deeply about their own thoughts and feelings. • Idealism: They may set high standards for how the world should be and criticize others (especially adults) for not meeting those standards. • Hypocrisy: Adolescents may act in ways that don't match their true feelings, just to meet expectations from others. • Pseudostupidity: Sometimes they overcomplicate problems and fail at simple tasks because they try to solve things in a too complex way. o 5|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Information Processing Cognitive Control: • Executive functions like attention, working memory, and flexibility improve during adolescence. • Self-regulation (controlling impulses) is still developing. o High stress or mental demands can make it harder for teens to control impulses. o Teens are more prone to making risky decisions when stressed, partly due to brain changes during adolescence. Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning: • Inductive Reasoning (Bottom-Up): o Starts with specific observations or experiences, then makes general conclusions. o Example: A child notices it always thunders in summer and concludes it only thunders in summer. This conclusion may not always be true. • Deductive Reasoning (Top-Down): o Starts with a general principle and uses it to make specific conclusions. o If the general principle is true, the conclusions will also be true. Example: If all dogs bark and Fido is a dog, Fido must bark. Intuitive vs. Analytic Thinking: • Intuitive Thinking: o Fast, automatic, and often unconscious. o More emotional and based on experience. o Common for children and teens, and used in everyday situations. • Analytic Thinking: o Deliberate, conscious, and logical. o Requires more effort and is often used by adults. • Dual-Process Model: o Both types of thinking work together, but intuitive thinking is quicker and more common in adolescents, especially when emotions are involved. Education Transitioning to Middle and High School: • Middle School: o Transition from elementary to middle school can be hard. Students may feel disengaged or alienated, affecting their grades and mental health. o Teachers in middle school are often seen as less supportive than in elementary school. • High School: o Transitioning to high school is also difficult. High schools are larger, more bureaucratic, and less personal, which can make it harder for students to connect with teachers. Peers and Academic Success: • Friends’ Influence: o Having friends who are academically motivated and engaged can help students stay motivated and do well in school. o On the other hand, friends who are disengaged or low achieving can negatively affect school performance and motivation. Gender Differences in Education: • Female Students: o Generally earn better grades, try harder, and are more intrinsically motivated than males. o Tend to be more focused on skill mastery, use various learning strategies, and keep working hard even when faced with challenges. o However, many females worry about pleasing teachers and parents, which can cause anxiety. • Male Students: o Males are often more confident in their abilities but may not seek as much adult feedback. o Some females who align with sexualized gender stereotypes may underperform academically because they feel that girls should be sexy and not smart. A Day in the Life of a High School Student: • On average, high school students spend about 7 hours each weekday and 1.1 hours on weekends on educational activities. • High school males: o Spend more time on media and sports compared to females. o Get more sleep (around 9.2 hours vs. 8.2 hours for females). • High school females: o Spend more time on leisure activities, religious activities, and grooming than males. 6|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT High School Dropout Rates: • Status Dropout Rate: Refers to the percentage of 16-24-year-olds who are not in school and do not have a high school diploma or equivalent. • The dropout rate has decreased from 12% in 1990 to 6.1% in 2016, with males having a higher dropout rate than females. • Dropout Rates by Race: o White students have the lowest dropout rate. o Hispanic students have the highest dropout rate, but the gap is narrowing between different races. Reasons for Dropping Out of School: • Challenges: o Adolescents in foster care or involved in the juvenile justice system are at high risk of dropping out. o Physical or mental health issues, abuse, or homelessness can also increase the likelihood of dropping out. • Family and Community Factors: o Poverty, single parenting, large family size, and stressful transitions increase dropout rates. o Living in unsafe neighborhoods, being involved in gang activity, or lacking social services also contributes to dropouts. School-Based Preparatory Experiences What Youth Need for Success in Education: To perform well in school, students need to be part of programs that help them reach their best potential. These programs should include: • Academic Programs: Based on clear state standards to guide what students need to learn. • Career & Technical Education: Programs that follow professional and industry standards to prepare students for specific careers. • School, Work, and Community-Based Learning: Options that allow students to learn in different environments, following a universal design that supports all types of learners. • Safe & Small Learning Environments: Schools should have small, safe spaces, and offer additional help, like tutoring, when needed. • Qualified Staff: Students should have support from highly qualified teachers and staff. • • Multiple Assessment Measures: There should be various ways to measure students' progress and learning, not just one test. Graduation Standards: Graduation requirements should have flexible options to accommodate different paths for students. Teenagers and Working Benefits of Working as a Teenager: • Extra Money: Teens can earn funds to spend on personal needs or savings. • Skill Development: Jobs can teach new skills that could be useful in the future. • Career Insight: Working may help teens understand different careers. • Understanding Money: It teaches the value of money and how to manage it. Concerns About Teenagers Working: • Impact on School: Working more than 20 hours a week may lead to: o Lower grades and disengagement from school. o Increased likelihood of substance abuse. o Earlier sexual behavior or even teen pregnancy. • Job Availability Declining: The number of summer jobs for teens has decreased in recent years. Teenage Drivers Benefits of Driving for Teens: • Freedom & Independence: Driving gives teens more freedom and less reliance on parents for transportation. • More Time for Parents: It reduces the time parents spend driving teens to school, work, and activities. Concerns About Teenage Drivers: • High Risk of Accidents: Teens are more likely to be involved in fatal crashes than older, more experienced drivers. o Motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of death for teens (ages 15-20). o Teens, especially in their first months of driving, are at high risk of accidents. o Males have a higher crash rate than females, but both genders have the highest crash rates in this age group. • Factors Contributing to Accidents: o Alcohol: A high percentage of fatal crashes involve alcohol, especially among young males. 7|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Seat Belt Use: Teens have the lowest seat belt usage rates, and those driving under the influence are even less likely to wear one. o Distractions: Distractions, like passengers (often other teens) and cell phones, contribute to a large number of accidents. o Inexperience: Lack of experience, coupled with distractions, increases the risk of accidents. • Common Accidents Among Teen Drivers: o Rear-End Collisions: Teens often follow other vehicles too closely. o Single-Vehicle Accidents: Speeding, especially in bad weather conditions, is a common cause. o Distractions: About 60% of accidents involve distractions, and texting while driving is a major issue. Efforts to Reduce Teenage Driving Accidents: • Declining Accident Rates: Accidents among teen drivers have decreased since 2005, thanks to: o Better driver training. o More social awareness of driving dangers. o Laws restricting the drinking age to 21, saving thousands of lives. • Graduated Driver Licenses (GDL): These programs help reduce accidents by: o Allowing more practice time. o Requiring parental involvement. o Limiting risky driving conditions for new drivers. o Self-concept and Self-esteem in Adolescence Self-Concept in Adolescence: • Development: Teens continue to develop their self-concept, the way they understand themselves. • Contradictions: Adolescents may see themselves in conflicting ways, such as being outgoing but also shy, or happy yet moody. • Different Behavior in Different Settings: Teens may act differently around family, friends, or at work, which can make them feel confused or like a "fraud." • Increased Self-Awareness: Older teens start to include values and moral beliefs in how they describe themselves. Self-Esteem in Adolescence: • • Expansion: In addition to academics, social life, appearance, and athletic abilities, teens also care about their competence in romantic relationships, jobs, and close friendships. Changes in Self-Esteem: o Self-esteem may drop temporarily when transitioning between school levels (e.g., from elementary to middle school or high school). o This drop is usually short-term, unless there are additional stressors (like family conflict). o Self-esteem tends to rise as teens move through adolescence, especially if they feel good about their relationships, appearance, and athletic skills. Erikson: Identity vs. Role Confusion • Erikson believed the main task of adolescence is figuring out who you are— your identity. Teens ask themselves questions like: o Who am I? o What career do I want? o What are my relationships, values, and interests? • Psychological Moratorium: Teens often go through a phase of exploring different identities without making any lasting commitments. This is called a “psychological moratorium,” and it's about trying out different roles to see what fits. • Challenges: If teens don’t resolve this identity confusion, they may become socially isolated or just blend into the crowd. However, most identity development continues into young adulthood. James Marcia's Four Identity Statuses: • Identity Diffusion: Teens haven’t explored identity options or committed to one, leading to a lack of purpose. • Identity Foreclosure: Teens commit to an identity without exploring options, sometimes because of pressure from parents. • Identity Moratorium: Teens are actively exploring different identities but haven’t committed yet. This can be a stressful time with many questions. • Identity Achievement: After exploration, teens make a commitment to an identity. This is a long process and usually happens in young adulthood, not by the end of adolescence. Stages of Identity Development: • High school and college years are key times for teens to move from confusion toward clearer identity. 8|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • College exposes teens to new ideas, career paths, and lifestyles, which help them shape their identity. Areas of Identity Development: • Religious Identity: Teens often share religious views with their families but may question or challenge certain aspects. • Political Identity: Political beliefs are often influenced by parents, but many teens today identify as independent or become less political. • Vocational Identity: Teens today take longer to figure out their career goals, as most jobs require more education or training. • Gender Identity: Understanding gender has become more complex, with teens exploring and choosing their gender identity more freely. • Sexual Identity: Many teens experiment with their sexual identity, and it can be stressful for LGBTQ+ teens, especially when they don’t get support from family or peers. • Ethnic Identity: Teens develop an understanding of their ethnicity and culture. For ethnic minorities, understanding their ethnic identity can be important but challenging, especially when navigating dominant cultural values. Phinney's Model of Ethnic Identity: • Unexamined Ethnic Identity: Teens who haven’t thought much about their ethnicity, often following their family’s beliefs without much questioning. • Ethnic Identity Search: Teens who explore and question their ethnic background, often triggered by experiences with prejudice or positive cultural recognition. • Achieved Ethnic Identity: Teens who have explored their ethnic background and feel confident about their identity. Bicultural/Multiracial Identity: • Teens from mixed or minority backgrounds may struggle with balancing both their family’s culture and the wider society. • Some may keep their identities separate, combine them, or reject one or the other. Negative Identity: • This is when teens adopt values that oppose their family or culture. It can lead to hostility, cynicism, and negative behaviors, like delinquency. Parents and Teens: Autonomy and Attachment Independence and Autonomy: • Teens naturally want more independence and spend less time with their parents as they grow older. • This is a normal part of preparing for adulthood, as teens start building relationships outside their families. • Balancing Act: Parents and teens need to balance the teen's desire for independence with maintaining a supportive family relationship. Increased Control and Conflict: • Teens want more control over decisions that affect their lives, like: o Chores o Homework o Curfews o Dating o Personal appearance • This desire for control often leads to conflict with parents. • Teens report more conflict with mothers, even though many mothers are supportive and encouraging. Cultural Differences: • Parents may be more controlling, especially with daughters, particularly those who mature earlier. • Different cultures and ethnicities also impact how much control parents have over their teen's life. Benefits of Secure Attachment: • Teens who maintain secure attachment to their parents have: o Fewer emotional problems. o Lower likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors (like drug use or crime). o Better peer relationships. Peers More Time with Peers: • As children become adolescents, they spend more time with peers and less with their families. • Peer interactions are less supervised by adults. Friendship Changes: • Childhood friendships focus on shared activities. • Adolescent friendships focus more on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings. Peer Groups and Homophily: • Peer groups often shift from being single-sex to mixed-sex. • Homophily means adolescents tend to spend time with peers who share similar behaviors and attitudes. • Spending time together shapes each other's behavior and attitudes. Positive and Negative Peer Influence: 9|Hikamac chi LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT • Negative peer pressure can encourage risky behaviors like: o Drinking alcohol o Using drugs o Committing crimes • Deviant peer contagion is when peers encourage problem behavior by showing approval (laughing, etc.), which increases the chances of future bad behavior. Positive Peer Relationships: • Peers can also provide social support and companionship, leading to: o Happiness o Better adjustment • Adolescents with positive peer relationships are generally happier and better adjusted than those with social isolation or conflict in their peer relationships. Crowds in Adolescence: • Crowds are larger social groups characterized by shared reputations, not direct interactions. • Crowds reflect different social identities, like: o Jocks o Brains • These crowds are linked with social status and how peers perceive their values or behaviors. Romantic Relationships Emerging Romantic Relationships: • Adolescence is when romantic relationships typically begin. • By the end of adolescence, most American teens have had at least one romantic relationship. • However, culture influences this—Asian Americans and Latinas are less likely to date compared to other ethnic groups. Purposes of Dating: • Teens date for various reasons, including: o Fun o Companionship o Status o Socialization o Sexual experimentation o Intimacy o Partner selection (especially in late adolescence). Stages of Dating: • Early Adolescence: o Teens start with mixed-sex group activities, expanding from same-sex groups. o Romantic relationships often form within these mixed-sex peer groups. • Middle Adolescence: o Teens engage in casual dating or group dating with established couples. • Late Adolescence: o Dating becomes exclusive and intense, often leading to long-term relationships that can last a year or longer. Importance of Romantic Relationships: • While adolescent relationships are often short-lived, they are still very important. • Romantic relationships have a big emotional impact and often matter more to teens than friendships, family, or school. • They contribute to: o Identity formation o Changes in family and peer relationships o Emotional and behavioral adjustment. Romantic Relationships and Emerging Sexuality: • Romantic relationships are closely tied to teens' emerging sexuality. • Adolescence is also when many teens, especially those who are LGBTQ+, begin to recognize and understand their sexual identity. Negative Impact of Bad Relationships: • A negative dating relationship can harm an adolescent’s development. • Relationship inauthenticity (when a teen feels a mismatch between their true feelings and actions) can lead to poor mental health, such as: o Depression o Suicidal thoughts o Suicide attempts (especially for females). 10 | H i k a m a c c h i