In Euripides’ Hippolytus we observe motifs that have been repeated in other plays (e.g the Bacchae). In the prologue, a god/goddess (in our case Aphrodite) speaks and announces their plan to avenge their honor and to punish the people (or person) who reject their cult.
In some plays (for instance the Bacchae) a god decides to punish the people, who reject their cult or the people who chose to honor another deity, directly either by killing them or driving them insane. In other cases, an Olympian God chooses to punish someone indirectly; making/forcing (probably without their consent) other people (who usually are the closest and dearest to the punished person) to accomplish the deity’s plan, on their behalf. The reason why people are punished by the gods is because they have committed hubris and they behave arrogantly, thus they have to be reminded of their mortality.
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Hippolytus
In Euripides’ Hippolytus, Theseus’ son, Hippolytus has taken an oath to serve and honor Artemis (the Goddess of Virginity and the most appropriate Goddess, according to his views and beliefs. l.15-16 Instead, he honors Apollo’s sister Artemis, Zeus’s daughter, thinking her the greatest of deities) , despising and insulting Aphrodite and everything associated to her cult (e.g. marriage, love) (l.13-14 Hippolytus says that I am the worst of deities. He shuns the bed of love and will have nothing to do with marriage). As a result, he must and will be punished by the Goddess. Aphrodite, though, chose to accomplish her revenge plan, using Phaedra (Theseus’ young wife and Hippolytus's stepmother) as her instrument. Phaedra is a young queen who is concerned a lot about her reputation and honor and because of that, she is the perfect candidate to execute Aphrodite’s plan. This Phaedra is another version of what Euripides had imagined and written as Phaedra. The first one, it was believed, was more brazen and forward and because of her husband’s extramarital affairs, she made sexual proposals to her husband’s son. The second version of Phaedra is the exact opposite of the first. She is depicted as chaste, the representation of female virtue and aidos, a woman who knows very well the conventions of the Greek social life which force women into silence in order to gain glory. The new Phaedra is not a well-born female character who asserts her sexual desire. One could argue that the new Phaedra is almost like Hippolytus, both concerned with aidos, eukleia, and chastity. That is the reason why Aphrodite chose Phaedra to destroy Hippolytus because they are not completely different.
The Goddess made her fall in love with her stepson, an emotion that will drive her to madness-alienating her from her real character. What is striking is that in the play Aphrodite states clearly her plan and course of action and Phaedra becomes aware that she was mad. Phaedra will commit her crimes after she recovered from her insanity and realized what has really happened. Her madness was caused by Aphrodite but because of the heroine’s character, there is a clash between the goddess’ powers and revenge and Phaedra’s moral character. In this play, although we observe Phaedra’s change of identity due to the imposed madness, in the end, she will take revenge not only because Aphrodite made her do it, but because she was exposed and rejected.
Madness’ Origins
The play’s plot and Phaedra’s madness are motivated mainly by Aphrodite’s desire to punish Hippolytus for his beliefs about her. As a Goddess, she is concerned about her eukleia, (and so does her chosen pawn Phaedra) but what matters most to her is that she cannot accept being rejected by a young boy. This rejection made Aphrodite angry and malicious and desires are projected on Phaedra’s character, who will work in parallel with the goddess. The irony is that both women work in parallel and so does Artemis with Hippolytus. The main difference though between the pairs is that Artemis will protect Hippolytus whereas Phaedra is simply used and manipulated by Aphrodite, who does not seem to take into consideration what will happen to Phaedra.
As it was stated earlier, Phaedra is presented as the unwitting victim, a respectable wife and woman, who cares deeply about her reputation and eukleia, and because of her traits, she was coldly chosen by Aphrodite to become her instrument (l.48-49 I do not set such store by her misfortune as not to inflict on my enemies such penalty as will satisfy me) so as to avenge herself. Phaedra is the epitome of the ideals of aidos, modesty, sophrosyne, wifely chastity, and good reputation. When she acknowledges that she is struck by love for Hippolytus, she cannot even say his name out loud without feeling ashamed (l.350-52 Whatever his name is, son of the Amazon -You mean Hippolytus?-Yours are the words, not mine.). A woman with such high sense of shame and aidos (l.244 For I am ashamed of my words) could not even be able to harbor feelings for her stepson- or for any other man apart from her husband. Consequently the beginning of her madness (falling in love with another man, fantasizing of him and his activities and all the things that are associated with him, and expressing the wish to join him has been characterized as madness – as the Nurse said l. 212-14 My child, what are these words of yours? Stop saying such things before the crowd, hurling wild words that are borne on the madness!) was fabricated by Aphrodite and it started as an eroticized/ vengeful madness (l.27-28 his father’s high-born wife Phaedra saw him, and her heart was seized with a dreadful longing: this was my devising), caused by an external force and not by the heroine’s needs or desires. The reason why this is madness is that Phaedra was a very chaste person, highly concerned about her reputation and most importantly she was married and because of Aphrodite’s imposed madness she was struck with love for her step-son.
Fantasies
After having being stricken by eros, and having realized that a deity must have done that to her (l.240-41 I was mad, I fell, and it was the doing of some divinity), she tries to carry herself with dignity. She struggles to resist Aphrodite’s powers and she wants to die rather than live with such shame (l.244 my gaze is turned to shame). What Phaedra has not realized yet, is that she has already surrendered herself to Aphrodite’s wishes, even though she tries to remain chaste. Her fantasies (l. 208-11, Oh, oh! How I long to draw a drink of pure water from a dewy spring and to take my rest lying under the poplar trees and in the uncut meadow!- l.215-222 Take me to the mountain: I mean to go to the wood, to the pine wood, where hounds that kill wild beasts tread, running close after the dappled deer! In heaven’s name, how I want to shout to the hounds and to let fly past my golden hair a javelin of Thessaly, holding in my hand the sharp-tipped lance!) are delusional and by expressing them, she proves that an eroticized madness has conquered her mind. Her words are a sample of involuntarily or induced speech of delirium which was caused by Aphrodite. Phaedra’s fantasies make no sense to the Nurse and the Chorus but to audience and to us the meaning is clear. While she describes her fantasies, the vocabulary that is used contains so many words that refer to intercourse and sexual desires (e.g 199 My limbs are unstrung – the force of eros which makes the limbs feel weak), and that causes pleasure and pain to Phaedra. While we read Phaedra’s fantasies we could easily say that she reminds us of the first version of the female protagonist, the forward and without boundaries woman. This Phaedra seems unknown to us because we know who she was. To the Nurse, this outburst is clearly a sign of madness and a meaningless speech (l.212-14 My child, what are these words of yours? Stop saying such things before the crowd, hurling wild words that are borne on the madness!) but so does Phaedra believe about her condition when she comes to her senses (l.241 I was mad). Analyzing Phaedra’s fantasies we could argue that her madness is driven by her sexual needs and desires. However, I believe that her delirium speech is dictated first and foremost by Aphrodite and then by Phaedra’s real needs.
She knows very well that this kind of madness is more powerful than her judgment (rationality l.240 Where have I wandered from the path of good sense?). This makes her parallelize her speech with passion and her silence with judgment and she finds herself in-between. (l.247-48 For to be right in my mind is grievous pain, while this madness is an ill thing). According to her statement, to be in right judgment is rationality and sophrosyne but remain silent is agony and pain that she cannot stand while she is alive. However, speech is an evil thing because it makes you succumb to your passion. The only solution for her is to perish, abandoning thus rationality, an extreme choice that will make her relieved.
Even though Phaedra knows that she has been possessed by a divine madness (and that her phrenes/wits are now dictated by a goddess) the play’s Chorus try to understand what has caused Phaedra’s illness. With their questions they try to understand the origins of her disease and they wonder whether it was Theseus’ deeds – an indirect mention/contrast to the first version of Hippolytus where Theseus was indeed a philanderer (l.151-54 Or is it your husband […] Does some other women rule his passion, someone in the palace, making secret love to him apart from your bed?), if she received bad news from her homeland, Crete. They start to realize that their queen’s illness is caused by a deity but their guess is not the right one (l.141-142 Has some god, Pan or Hecate, possessed you, dear girl? - l.145-147 Are you being worn down for some fault against Dictynna of the wild beasts, having failed to offer her the holy batter?). The Chorus, even unintentionally, have managed to underline the quality of Phaedra’s character by proving that her marriage is normal and that she honors the Gods, as a proper woman would do. Only the Nurse knows the real person who caused the heroine’s madness after she discovered her secret love for another person (l..438-39 but it is the wrath of the goddess that has descended on you. Are you in love?). Nonetheless, Phaedra tries as much as humanly possible to suppress her emotions and to stop her secret love for Hippolytus from destroying the house.
After Madness
Phaedra’s eroticized madness made her appear as if she were an adulterous wife, having no power and control over her mind and desires. Given the fact that Phaedra was chaste, her mad character and former identity led to a battle and struggle between her interior self and external image in the eyes of the society. Phaedra chooses to die so as to honor the society and the customs that dictate her life, as well as the name and reputation of her children (at this point she reminds us of Medea and her concern about her children and their eukleia). She knows that by protecting her eukleia she protects the good reputation of womankind. As a woman, she is aware of the slander women have to face if they do not exhibit self-control in every aspect of their life (domestic or public).
As it was stated previously her madness consists of many layers. Firstly, her madness was eroticized and dictated by Aphrodite’s wrath but from now on she will start being dominated by her eukleia, and fear of exposure (l.400-402 I was unable to master Cypris, I resolved on death, the best of plans, as no one shall deny). Phaedra is extremely concerned about her fame and reputation like any male hero (e.g Achilles) and she lives by her own modified heroic code. Her resistance is the only obstacle to the fruition of Aphrodite’s plan. She is adamant on remaining silent and keeps torturing herself until her feelings are revealed to Hippolytus, which will lead her to death, so as not to carry such burden on her. It is only normal that she has plenty of changes of mind because Aphrodite tries to bend the heroine’s wits and will. Therefore the female protagonist is somewhere between silence and speech, passion and rationality, love and self-honor. Her judgment has already chosen the path she will follow and she is determined to hide her “sickness” by remaining silent (l.394 to conceal my malady in silence).
The reasons why she chose to remain silent, vary. First of all, she wants to preserve her eukleia (that is her motivation throughout the play). By preserving her eukleia she protects her children and her house (l.41-21 My friends, it is this very purpose that is bringing about my death, that I may not be convicted of bringing shame to my husband or to the children I gave birth to) and at the same time, she does not set a precedence for the rest of the womankind. She is becoming the woman they can look up to. Furthermore, she will avoid being judged by other women but at the same time she will be forced to live a life without being able to enjoy her so desired honor and eukleia. (l.403-404 For just as I would not have my good deeds unknown, so may I not have a throng of witnesses to my shameful ones!).
Being virtuous and having aidos are the meaning of life and she cannot have one without the other then does not deserve to live, simply because she has failed in acknowledging the good life. (l. 426-27 One thing only, they say, competes in value with life, the possession of a heart blameless and good).
The Lying Note
Her great speech though seems to contradict her lying note about Hippolytus. The lying note was Phaedra’s last attempt to save her reputation and honor. Hippolytus was informed about her feelings, which he does not only reciprocate but he feels disgusted by them. Nonetheless, he became a witness to Phaedra’s secret thus he must be silenced. (l.689-90 For he, with his mind whetted to a fine edge with anger, will utter to his father against my name […] l.713-14I swear by Artemis the holy, Zeus’s daughter, that I shall never reveal to the daylight any of your troubles! ). Moreover, the heroine had heard his hateful speech against women, which hurt Phaedra, and it became the breaking point for her. Now she does not feel love about Hippolytus but pain because of his words. Having not heard his speech, Phaedra would have remained silent to suffer until she died, but now she cannot face Theseus without guilt, because she would become the kind of the woman she hates (l.415-416 how can these women look into the faces of their husbands?l.661 then see how you look upon him, you and your mistress). Furthermore, she despises women who are unfaithful and brag about their affairs. Therefore she could not be the person who would initiate a relationship with Hippolytus, or even think of it, had it not been caused by Aphrodite’s powers (l.241 I was mad, I fell, and it was the doing of some divinity).
Conclusion
Although Aphrodite informs us that Phaedra’s honor will remain intact, it will be Artemis who will protect her reputation, after having protected Hippolytus’ name and restored order and justice (l.1298-1301so that he may die with a good name, make plain, too, the maddened frenzy of your wife or, if I may call it so, her nobility. […] l.1428-1430 poetry sung by maidens will forever make you its theme, and Phaedra’s love for you shall not fall nameless and unsung).
In her mind Phaedra lived and died by her heroic code. Her eroticized madness evolved to an obsession about honor and eukleia. The irony though is that Phaedra suffered from eroticized madness and when she recovered she was left with the consequences of the eros’ force. The induced eros made her have fantasies about Hippolytus and how she could have joined him. When she came back to her senses and heard Hippolytus’ speech, she realized what a bitter emotion is to love someone who does not share this feeling but on top of that, he feels repulsed. and her efforts to be remembered as honored and respectable would be characterized as a failure because from the beginning she was just a pawn and Aphrodite is indifferent towards her (l. 48-50 I do not set such store by her misfortune as not to inflict on my enemies such penalty as will satisfy me).
But it was that obsession, her high sense of aidos, and her duty and obligation as a woman, mother, and queen to preserve her good reputation no matter what the personal cost would be (suicide) that made her the perfect candidate for Aphrodite, otherwise her revenge plan would not have succeeded.
We have to keep in mind that madness was considered to be a disgrace but if to be in right mind causes unbearable pain the only resolution is (bloodless) death. With her suicide Phaedra managed to expose Aphrodite as an amoral goddess and her Nurse as an oath breaker who harmed her, instead of helping her. In the Danaid trilogy the young women – suppliants- are forced to get married with unwanted suitors, whom they murder on their wedding night. The women, (usually the virgins) rebel against the institution of marriage and what it represents for them; a life in a male-dominated society, which uses women only as reproductive instruments. It is a society, where women are ruled over by their husbands or fathers, even in their domestic sphere. When women are suppressed or isolated (e.g Medea, the Danaid girls) and treated unfairly in their domestic (and public) lives they proceed to commit crimes that shake the core of the social system to its foundations, which results to the gods’ provocation and finally their intervention, so as to settle women’s resistance to men’s claims to power over them. Because of the nature of the crimes they commit, women are depicted as mad (unless there is an obvious reference of divine-induced madness) without having control over their minds. In my opinion, their crimes are their primitive reaction to the injustice they face.
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