Euclid of Alexandria is one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, and his work, ‘Elements’, remains one of the most published books to this day. Considering the legacy he left behind, it is unimaginable how much of his research was truly lost. Some sources claim that as much as half of his works did not survive, especially the ones regarding conics and mechanics. Another field of ancient science that was lost with the Library of Alexandria is optics. While Euclid’s studies on optics have indeed survived, they represent a very early stage of research on the subject. Claudius Ptolemy’s later writings are instead considered to be an incomplete recovery of earlier research. Some sources imply that Hipparchus developed the theory of binocular vision almost 2 millennia before Galileo and Hans Lipperhey developed their telescopes.
Advancements in medicine suffered greatly from the destruction of the Library of Alexandria and would not reach the same levels until more than 1,000 years later. Herophilus, a prominent physician of the time, is believed to be among the first anatomists. Through the dissection of cadavers, he discovered the nerves and distinguished them from tendons. He also identified the brain as being the center of the nervous system and the seat of intelligence. Additionally, he studied the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and reproductive systems, introducing a new anatomical terminology that is still widely used to this day. None of his works survived, though they were referenced by later physicians.
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After the Hellenistic period, the scientists that relied on a combination of theoretical and experimental knowledge had diminished, as many experiments were deemed redundant due to the presence of reliable sources at the time. However, once those sources disappeared, scientists were unable to replicate previous research and experiments. This led to the survival of many scientific concepts among scholars, but many remained unproven until the scientific revolution.
In addition to many scientific texts, there were countless historical works that also perished with the Library of Alexandria. Sources mention several texts by Callisthenes, the official historian of Alexander the Great, on his campaigns. These include the history of Greece between the Corinthian War of 395-387 BC and the Phocian War of 356-346 BC, as well as the history of the Phocian War. Only one book from Agatharchides, ‘On the Eythraean Sea’, has survived, although it was highly praised and referenced throughout history. However, he was also the author of other significant works such as ‘Affairs in Europe’ and ‘Affairs in Asia’, which are now lost. Another particularly interesting text that was lost is Pytheas of Massalia’s ‘On the Ocean’. Everything that modern historians know about his voyage is due to other sources. For a prolonged period, his accounts were the only available pieces of information about the British Isles, Northern Europe, and the Baltic Sea.
In terms of philosophy, it’s worth mentioning the texts by Protagoras, Prodicus, and Gorgias, the first generation of sophists. Even though they were heavily criticized, their writings are considered to be quite progressive. For example, Protagoras is mentioned to be an open proponent of agnosticism, something which was extremely rare and frowned upon at the time. Ancient sources record that his books were publicly burned, but several copies are thought to have survived in Alexandria. By the time of the biographer Diogenes Laertius, many of his works such as ‘Truth’ and ‘On the Gods’ were missing. Another important school of philosophy was that of Stoicism. One of the main Stoic philosophers was Chrysippus, who lived in the 3rd century BC and composed over 160 texts with only a few fragments of his works still surviving. It is believed that the Stoic school became as prominent as it did in later centuries due to the excellent defense of its doctrines. Later Stoics such as Marcus Aurelius, Seneca, and Epictetus place their focus mostly on ethics, neglecting to write about the foundations of the Stoic principles.
A myriad of old Greek works of prose and poetry were also lost. The most famous of these works was ‘The Titanomachy’, which offered varying accounts of several mythological events from the famous Hesiodic Theogony. Other important works include Sophocles’ tragedies, as well as the ‘Thebaid’ and ‘Epigoni’, which tell the story of the war between the sons of Oedipus. There were also various poems from the Epic Cycle that narrated different aspects of the Trojan War, such as ‘The Little Iliad’, ‘Sack of Troy', and ‘Returns’. A legend reports that Ptolemy III tried to purchase original texts by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides from Athens, only to be refused. In the end, he managed to convince the Athenians to temporarily send them to Alexandria for copying purposes in exchange for a large amount of gold. The Athenians would not see the original manuscripts ever again. If the legend is true, then those works are likely to have been lost as well.
The belief that the Library of Alexandria met its demise in one single catastrophic event was widespread for a long time, but the truth is not as simple. Starting from the middle of the 2nd century BC, complex internal events and social unrest did not allow the Ptolemies to continue to offer a favorable environment for the institution. Consequently, the Library gradually lost the role it had played in the past, as it could no longer count on the same contributions and resources as earlier. During Julius Caesar’s Egyptian campaign of 48-47 BC, Alexandria was besieged, with a fire breaking out in the harbor and spreading to the library. Sources regarding the extent of the damage are conflicting, with claims ranging from complete destruction to only minor damage. However, according to contemporary and later sources, the Library continued to function. Nonetheless, after coming under Roman rule, the institution began its slow decline, and by the 3rd century AD, it was merely a shadow of its former glory. Whatever remained of the Great Library of Alexandria was probably destroyed during the Crisis of the Third Century. On the other hand, the Serapeum survived until 391, when it was mostly demolished by Christians following the anti-pagan edicts of Emperor Theodosius I. As each new set of rulers began to see the Library’s content as a threat rather than a precious resource, its collection slowly disappeared from history. The destruction of the Library of Alexandria is without a doubt a tragedy for humanity, but thankfully many important texts were disseminated to other libraries in the Mediterranean over the years.
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