Kidnapping is the act of abducting someone and holding them captive. There are many reasons people have for kidnapping another human being which range from greed all the way to religion. Though while the reasons may vary wildly the methods often do not as rope, manpower, and a vehicle are all that is really needed to carry out the act (Concannon, D., 2013).
According to NYA International, a London-based kidnap and extortion response consultancy, every year there is an estimated 15,000 to 20,000 kidnappings, detentions and extortions that happen globally (Rose, J., 2011).
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There are many criminological theories that could explain kidnapping although within this essay only three will be expanded on. These are rational choice theory, strain theory, and containment theory. These three theories will be explained in the context of kidnapping and the broader of crime.
The first of the three theories, rational choice theory, is a contemporary version of classical theory that states that individuals use rational calculations to make rational choices and achieve outcomes that are aligned with their own personal objectives. When in the context of crime this means that a person will use rational calculations to determine whether committing a crime is worth the risk of getting caught, and the subsequent punishment. Rational choice assumes that when a person commits a crime it is purposive and rational. Meaning emotions do not come into play, and all factors are taken into consideration (Clarke, R., & Felson, M., 2004).
When it comes to kidnapping, rational choice is a great explanatory theory as most of the reasons for kidnapping come from a rational viewpoint, rational choice excels at explaining. When looking at money as a motivator for kidnapping, rational choice allows us to see how a person can rationalize the risk of jail versus the risk of not being able to support themselves. Or in the case of repeated kidnapping the understanding that with their experience comes a more comfortable outlook on their own ability to avoid capture by authorities (Clarke, R., & Felson, M., 2004). Rational choice works best when explaining politics as the cause for kidnapping. As political kidnapping is still common among less developed countries that are rife with corruption. Nigeria works as a great example for kidnapping both for money and for politics (Sherman, P., & Thiel, K., 2018).
The second of the three theories, strain theory, states that certain strains or stressors increase the likelihood of a person committing a crime. These strains are caused by a mismatch of social goals and socially acceptable ways to achieve those goals, which then lead to negative emotions which include anger, frustration, and resentment. These emotions cause the person to respond in a variety of ways. The first of which is to conform, finds themselves using approved means to pursue approved goals. An example of which is where they work a nine to five job in hopes of buying a house. In contrast to innovation, where a person uses disapproved means to pursue approved goals, in this case a person may deal drugs with the hope of buying a house. Ritualism is where the person abandons the approved goals but still conforms to the approved means. This means a person will still work that nine to five job with no hope of buying a house or any related goals. Retreatism is where both the approved goals and means are rejected. So, a person won’t buy into the dream of a house of work a nine to five job, instead finding other means and goals. Rebellion is where a person challenges the approved goals and means. The best example of this is a literal rebellion, where the status quo is rebelled against. Crime involves itself with retreatism, rebellion, and innovation. These responses are used to reduce or escape from strain, seek revenge against the source of strain, or alleviate the negative emotions caused by the strain (Agnew, R & Brezina, T., 2010).
Strain theory when in the context of kidnapping is used to help contextualize the reasons for it and ways in which it can be resolved. As strain theory focuses on different strains and the responses to it, first one must look at the generally accepted reasons for kidnapping (Agnew, R & Brezina, T., 2010). These are money, religion, politics, and sex (Concannon, D., 2013). When it comes to money, strain theory can be a great as it allows us to understand how people can decide to kidnap when they are in poverty and lack the money to support themselves, and when while someone may be able to support themselves, they still rely upon kidnapping to further themselves (Vowell, P., & May, D. ,2007). It does this by showing the goals that cultures associate with wealth and money are not very achievable to those in poorer countries. And once a person hits rock bottom the strain may cause them to innovate into becoming an abductor and kidnapping someone (Otu, S., & Nnam, M., 2018). Though when looking at politics strain theory becomes less able to hold up as there is no strain associated with the kidnapping and potential murder of a corrupt politician by the masses. Though strain theory does come into play when talking about kidnappings done by said corrupt politician (Pamela, W., & Cullen, F., 2010).
The third and final of the three theories, containment theory, says that a string of external social factors and internal factors help to effectively insulate express individuals from committing a crime even when certain social variables cause others to commit crime. What this means is that there are forces that promote deviance and forces that promote conformity. And these forces can be both external and internal. Internal forces refer more to a person’s qualities while external forces are more social factors like peer pressure (Hauhart, R., 2017).
Containment theory when in the context of kidnapping is best connected to the motives of sex and attachment. The sex motive for kidnapping means that usually the act of sexually assaulting the victim is the main goal of the crime rather than the act of kidnapping them. This is usually because the abductor finds themselves unable to contain their desire for the victim but retaining enough self-control to formulate the idea that kidnapping might be their best option. Attachment refers to the kidnapping of infant’s usually for a misplaced sense of love for a stranger’s infant. Or the abduction of one’s own infant after losing a custody battle. When it comes to the kidnapping of another’s infant the abductor is often married or living with their partner; their partners’ desire for a baby or the abductor's desire to provide her companion with ‘his’ baby may be the motivation for the abduction (Infant Abductions, 2019). Though when it comes to kidnapping one’s own child due to losing custody. Containment theory explains it very well as a lack of internal qualities that help insulate the abductor from abducting their own child (Hauhart, R., 2017).
Out of all three theories presented, strain theory works best when explain kidnapping because it contextualizes commonly held reasons for kidnapping as well as conform with the areas that have the highest rates of kidnapping (Pamela, W., & Cullen, F., 2010).
Once again harkening back to money as a source of motive for kidnapping, poverty is a great strain to get a person motivated into innovating into kidnapping (Agnew, R & Brezina, T., 2010). Whereas rational choice theory would postulate that the abductor made the rational calculations about the costs and benefits of kidnapping as a route to escape poverty. And for those under the poverty line the answer would have kidnapping come up as a bad choice when it comes to escaping poverty (Clarke, R., & Felson, M., 2004). As laws in third world countries where kidnapping is most prevalent have become increasingly harsh to combat the rise (Otu, S., & Nnam, M., 2018). While containment theory would argue that a poverty-stricken person would lose moral forces that one would adhere to when not finding it hard to live day-to-day (Hauhart, R., 2017). Though strain theory comes out on top of containment due to its inclusion of the stressor of society while containment merely focuses on the moral factors that society imposes upon its members.
Though when one takes away the idea of poverty and instead looks at kidnapping as a way to make it rich, strain theory becomes an even better fit within a capitalist society that looks at wealth as the ultimate goal for a person in society. So, while an abductor may lack the means to meet up with societies goals, innovation can help them meet the goals (Hauhart, R., 2017). Whereas rational choice would find that kidnapping in such a situation isn’t the correct. Because the benefits of the wealth are heavily outweighed by both the chances of being caught, and the consequences of being caught (Clarke, R., & Felson, M., 2004). Containment theory fits in with the idea of making oneself wealthy through ransom. As a lack of any social factors compared to internal qualities would make kidnapping and ransom a cinch (Wilcox, P., & Cullen, F., 2010).
Strain theory finds itself slightly different when it comes to political kidnapping, as rather than society’s goal being a big house or lots of wealth. It is power and authority. This still fits within innovation though, as power and authority are things highly valued by society and can be set as a societal goal. Which turns kidnapping into an innovation (Concannon, D., 2013). Rational choice theory is right at home with political kidnappings as when they are carried out, it is in a cold and calculated manner with minimal risk of backlash and repercussions (Clarke, R., & Felson, M., 2004). Containment theory finds itself slightly lost due to the idea that within a corrupt government that finds kidnapping common would have a culture surround that (Hauhart, R., 2017).
Strain theory helps to explain religion quite handily when it comes to kidnapping, because when talking about religion as the specific reason for the kidnapping it falls under rebellion. An example of this is the Boko Haram who in April 2014, kidnapped 276 schoolgirls from the town of Chibok, Nigeria (Sherman, P., & Thiel, K., 2018). Boko Haram neither agreed with the societal goal of education nor the method to attain it, going to school. And so, to remedy that they ‘rebelled’ and kidnapped the 276 schoolgirls. Rational choice theory would find such an idea lacking, as the choice to kidnap such a large number of girls with no true benefit to the abductors goes against the idea of rational thinking. Because the kidnappings were first, to stop those girls from getting an education, and second to serve as a warning to those who continued to wish to have an education (Sherman, P., & Thiel, K., 2018). Containment theory finds itself fitting less with religious kidnappings. As external social factors would find that Boko Haram breeds a community where such a thing is perfectly acceptable. Rather than containment theories idea that a lack of such external social factors must be present to allow for a crime to take place (Hauhart, R., 2017).
In conclusion, strain theory provides the best explanation of kidnapping. It also allows for us to look into solutions that cut down on the amount of kidnapping in society. But, while out of the three theories presented, Strain theory is the best for describing the reasons for which kidnapping occurs, it is far from a comprehensive theory about kidnapping. Though these solutions may not be able to be implemented as something like increasing the penalties for kidnapping may not work in countries that find a corrupt government. The recommended solutions that strain theory offers is to first create jobs. As poverty no longer becomes a strain if a person has a job to support themselves. Though in some countries that may need to come with an increase in minimum wage. Though while strain theory is great taking a page from rational choice theory is good to help us decide to train strong anti-kidnapping agents and have serious punishment for abductors.
References
- Agnew, R., & Brezina, T., 2010. The SAGE Handbook of Criminological Theory. 1 edition SAGE Publications Ltd. doi10.4135/9781446200926.
- Clarke, R., & Felson, M., 2004. Routine Activity and Rational Choice: Advances in Criminological Theory. Volume 5. Transaction Publishers. New Brunswick, New Jersey.
- Concannon, D., 2013. Kidnapping: An Investigator’s Guide. 2nd edition, Elsevier Inc.
- Forest, J., 2012. Kidnapping by Terrorist Groups, 1970-2010: Is Ideological Orientation Relevant? Sage Journals, 58(5). doi10.1177/0011128712452962.
- Glenn, S., 2019. The 'Kidnapping' of Hildy McCoy: Child Adoption and Religious Conflict in the Shadow of the Holocaust. Jewish Social Studies, 24(3), 80-123. doi10.2979/jewisocistud.24.3.04.
- Hauhart, R., 2017. Containment Theory. The Encyclopedia of Juvenile Delinquency and Justice. doi10.1002/9781118524275.ejdj0096.
- Otu, S., & Nnam, M., 2018. Does Theory Matters: Constructing an Integrated Theoretical Framework to Describe Kidnapping for Ransom in Nigeria. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 40, 29-38. doi10.1016/j.avb.2018.02.010.
- Ozdemir, P., Tanhan, F., & Ozdemir, O., 2018. Rational Choice Theory in Psychiatry. Current Approaches to Psychiatry, 10(4). doi10.18863/pgy.362157.
- Rose, J., 2011. The Global Kidnapping Epidemic. Risk Management, 58(3).
- Sherman, P., & Thiel, K., 2018. True Teen Stories from Nigeria: Surviving Boko Haram. Cavendish Square Publishing LLC, New York, NY. Available from: ProQuest E-book Central. [31 October 2019].
- Vowell, P., & May, D., 2007. Another Look at Classic Strain Theory: Poverty Status, Perceived Blocked Opportunity, and Gang Membership as Predictors of Adolescent Violent Behavior. Sociological Inquiry, 70(1), 42-60. doi10.1111/j.1475-682X.2000.tb00895.x.
- Wilcox, P., & Cullen, F., 2010. Encyclopedia of Criminological Theory. SAGE Publications, Inc. Thousand Oaks, CA.
- National Center for Missing & Exploited Children, 2019. Infant Abductions. Viewed 30 October 2019.
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