Introduction
When studying the factors affecting second language acquisition (SLA) it is important that we consider the differences among L2 learners as these differences can result in different levels of impact on them. Clearly, some language learners demonstrate better abilities in learning a second / foreign language than others. This can be due to internal factors (e.g., age, personality and cognition), and external factors that can be related to second language instruction, curriculum, use of certain SLA techniques, etc. In addition to these factors, the newly emerged approaches in SLA which aim to enhance the quality and quantity of instruction can have positive effects on L2 learning.
In this essay, I will go through some SLA theories in the literature review. Then I will discuss the internal and external factors affecting SLA and how they can be taken into consideration to accommodate the needs of various types of language learners. I will also discuss the benefits of some new approaches in the field of SLA.
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Literature review
Trying to understand what influence SLA, many linguists came up with many theories which were first initiated by the research in the differences and similarities between first language acquisition and second language acquisition. Krashen (1981; cit. in. Brown, 1994: 280), for instance, focused on the age role in SLA. He states that the difference between an adult learner and a child learner is the ability of the adult to use subconscious and conscious processes when learning a language, whereas a child uses only the subconscious processing to acquire a language. He refers to the conscious process in which the adult learner of a second language analyzes the rules and forms of a language as ‘monitor’. He emphasizes that achieving a native-like proficiency requires us to encourage L2 learners to use the same means that children use when they acquire their first language i.e., subconscious acquisition processes. Therefore, Krashen recommends that teachers should help their students acquiring a language rather than learning it consciously.
However, Krashen’s hypothesis has been criticized for its claim that learning a language can occur at the subconscious level. Mclaughlin (1990; cit. in. Brown, 1994: 282) has suspected that the difference between what is called conscious learning and subconscious acquisition could be distinguished. He adds that an input can’t become an intake without conscious learning of the second language. In fact, this can be true as a number of studies have shown that noticing of language rules, which is a conscious process, can be helpful in developing communicative competence in language learning (Brown, 1994).
Research in this field has extended to cover the personal characteristics of L2 learners and their effect on SLA. Seliger (1983; cit. in Brown, 1994) explains that specific learners have better abilities to get input, he calls them ‘High Input Generators’ (HIG). Compared to ‘Low Input Generators’ (LIG), these learners are able to communicate inside and outside of classroom. The writer suggests that HIG learners learn the language faster as they get exposed to more input than their counterparts. Other factors focus on the emotional status of learners and their motivators to learn L2. Recently, researchers have included other new factors such as the role of subtitling and the effect of immersion language programs on SLA.
Internal factors
Internal factors can be defined as those personal characteristics that distinguish each learner from others (e.g., age, personality, cognitive abilities, etc.). These different characteristics can affect the preparedness of students to learn a language, which, as a result, can cause variance in the levels of SLA among students.
Age
As a continuation to what has been said about the age factor in the literature review, the neurologist Wilder Penfield proposed the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH), which claims that people are more capable of learning a foreign language easily before the age of puberty compared to later times in their lives (Brown, 1994). Neurologists attribute this to the plasticity of the brain (i.e., the ability of brain’s change before puberty), which helps children to acquire a native-like accent of the foreign language (Scovel, 1969; cit. in. Brown, 1994: 52). However, most of the researches about the role of age in SLA seem to focus on its role in the acquisition of a native-like accent more than the acquisition of other features of the language.
Second language learners, on the other hand, use different mechanism to learn a L2 as they grow up. Liu et al. (1992; cit. in. García Mayo & Garcia Lecumberri, 2003) find out, after conducting a study, that there is a difference between learners of second language who are below 13 years old and those who are above the age of 20 in the mechanism they processed L2. Those who started earlier were noticed to use the same strategies as those used by monolingual English speakers, whereas the other group used Chinese processing strategies (cit. in. García Mayo & Garcia Lecumberri, 2003).
As for my opinion, I think that the notion of elasticity of the brain is right and it does have an effect on acquiring a native-like accent. However, I think that the ability of adults to use their cognitive abilities to analyze and figure out the rules of a second language is a plus that can enable them to learn a language maybe quicker than children in some cases. However, Children seem to be better at acquiring a second language than adults in real life. This can be attributed to other factors such as the fact that they have fewer things to worry about. Having less distractions in your life will make you more focused and able to learn L2 better.
Motivation
The Online Oxford Dictionary defines motivation as ‘the desire or the willingness to do something’ (motivation, 2014; Guerrero, 2015). When deciding to learn a second language, students have different driving forces to do so. There are the ones who study in public schools where English is part of the school’s curriculum. As a result of not choosing to study English their motivation might be different from the ones’ who have chosen to study the language. In fact, even the later type of learners might have been forced to do an English course as a requirement for a job or so, which referred to as instrumental orientation (Guerrero, 2015). Whereas those who are derived by their love of the culture and language are derived by what is called integrative orientation.
Recently, the research on motivation has shifted from the personal drives of motivation to how students can be made more motivated. Hermann (1980; cit. in. Ellis, 1994) came up with the ‘Resultative Hypothesis’ which suggests that students are likely to get motivated as their learning outcomes get higher. In other words, Getting better grades or / and feeling a sense of accomplishment motivates students to learn the language.
Learning styles
According to Brown (1994) a learning style can be defined as specific person’s tendencies through which he can learn better. Different students have different learning styles such as auditory learners, who seem to learn from what they hear. Visual learners, on the other hand, learn better by seeing. Another type of intelligence or learning style is called kinesthetic. These learners like to manipulate things and use their bodies to perform actions to learn new things. Students with one learning style or another or even a combination of two may affect their learning process positively or negatively. This is of course determined by the school where the learner studies. If his English teacher choses to focus on using activities that target auditory learners only, of course the visual learners would be affected negatively as their learning process will be hindered. That’s why it’s recommended that teachers vary their techniques to serve the largest number of learning styles in the classroom. Brown (1994) states that we should encourage our students to use whatever strategies or means they feel comfortable with.
Personality
Many aspects of students’ personalities have been studied to measure their effect on their SLA. One of these aspects that have been investigated thoroughly is inhibition. Inhibition to use a second language can hinder the learning process. Not performing in the L2 means you are not practicing, which is a very important aspect in SLA. To minimize the level of inhibition, small doses of alcohol can be taken before an exam or oral presentation. This actually has been proven in studies in SLA (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). Another factor is anxiety, which has been viewed recently in a slightly different way than what it was thought of in the past. Whereas MacIntyre (1995; cit. in. Lightbown & Spada, 2006) states that students who exhibit a high level of anxiety in the classroom will not learn as quickly as their relaxed peers, Radnofsky (2001; cit. in. Lightbown & Spada, 2006) used the term ‘tension’ to refer to low level of anxiety, which can in fact produce good results in language learning. Learners have been also characterized as introvert and extrovert. Extrovert students, who are usually more talkative and sociable than their introvert counterparts, are thought to learn a second language at a quicker pace. Other personal factors such as self-esteem have also been under investigation. However, as mentioned by Lightbown and Spada (2006) there has not been a clear specification of their direct effect on SLA. It is also important that we notice that not all intrapersonal learners develop their level of second language at a slower pace compared to interpersonal. Many studies show that this is not the case.
Identity and ethnic group affiliation
The conflict between the Israeli occupiers and the occupied Palestinian people can be used as a perfect example to clarify what is meant by the identity factor. Let’s see how the consequences of the conflict can be traced at the linguistic level by going through the following scenarios of learning Arabic and Hebrew as a second / foreign language in Palestine. The first scenario is about both sides learning each other’s languages to protect themselves from one another. In other words, the Israeli government would encourage young Israelis to master Arabic for intelligence purposes and the Palestinians would do the same. The second scenario, Most Israelis can swear in Arabic as an Arab would do. This comes as a result of the hostile nature of the relationship they have with the Palestinians. Palestinians, on the other hand, would have learnt the Hebrew swear words if they existed. However, Hebrew is a newly revived language that has very basic swear words. A fourth scenario is the knowledge that Palestinian construction workers have in Hebrew. Once these workers start working in what is called Israel they tend to learn construction-related words to help them do their job. The setting of the fifth scenario is at prison. The Palestinian prisoners know how to say ‘posta’ and ‘khayal’ (meaning post and soldier in Hebrew), and some other basic words related to their conditions as prisoners. In most cases Hebrew is not really approached with passion at Israeli prisons. Instead it’s learnt for resistance-related purposes.
Interestingly, there are a lot of people from both sides who learnt the two languages perfectly and they would say they like it and they want to learn more. However, they both still share the same Arabic proverb ‘Learn your enemy’s language to be safe of his wickedness’. As for me, I once tried to learn Hebrew and I could have started practicing it with the soldiers who were blocking the road that led to my village, but I preferred to deny that I even spoke a word neither in Hebrew nor in English and I kept using Arabic with them.
Contrary to what is thought, identity and ethnic group affiliation can have positive effects on SLA. Using the same case as an example, I have always witnessed that the majority of those who were enthusiastic supporters of Palestinians were also coming from the same ethnic group (i.e., Jews) who is assaulting Palestinians. This can be motivated by the feelings of guilt and the desire to tell the world that not all Jews support what the Israelis do. Among this pro-Palestine group I have met a lot of people who were motivated to learn Arabic for this specific reason.
External factors
External factors, on the other hand, are those outside influences that can be related to the classroom environment, quality of instruction, exposure to L2, and the implementation of other tools and techniques in classroom.
Instruction
About the factor of instruction, Krashen proceeds with his Input hypothesis. According to him, the type of input that a language learner needs to be exposed to should neither be below his level nor too much challenging for him. In other words, it should be a bit challenging (i+1, as krashen illustrated). Just then the acquisition will happen. Long (1983; cit. in. Lightbown & Spada, 2006: 43) argues that input should be made comprehensible to be learnt. This process can be done through what he calls ‘comprehension checks’ (e.g., Do you understand me?), clarification requests (e.g., Can you repeat please?). Vygotsky (1978; cit. in. Lightbown & Spada, 2006: 47) talks about the Zone of Proximate Development (ZPD). It’s the difference between what learners of second language can do without help and what they can’t do. He recommends that learners should be scaffolded for the learning to take place. This reveals one characteristics of good classroom instruction i.e., scaffolding. It can be defined as the process of leading students to find their own ways to develop and acquire new features of the target language (e.g., the use of realia and visuals).
Immersion programs
Immersion instruction has shed the light on not only the quality of instruction, but also the quantity of instruction and its positive effect on SLA. Therefore, Geneese (1987) emphasizes that for a teaching program to be considered an immersion program at least 50% of the subjects should be taught in L2. Bostwick (2011) clarifies that the L2 used in immersion program is not the subject of instruction; rather it is the medium through which the majority of the school’s academic content is taught. However, immersion programs don’t have immediate effect on students’ performance. According to Bostwick (2011) concrete results of such programs can become tangible in two to three years.
The effectiveness of the program comes as a result of the fact that it allows students to learn L2 through content. This meets one of the main principles of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLTA) i.e., L2 learning should occur in a meaningful context (Scrivener, 2011). Real-life content increases the learners’ motivation to communicate in L2 and makes them see the point behind learning the target language. Besides, wide range of context provides opportunities to communicate using different characteristics of the language.
However, learning using a foreign language can be challenging for most students, that is why scaffolding should be considered as a main characteristic of this program. Cummins (1998) suggests activating students’ schemata, the use of paraphrasing, repetition, demonstration, gestures, graphs and visuals as techniques to help make the content clearer. 4.3. Moblie-Assisted Language Learning
Another new approach to mention is called Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL), which can be defined as the use of mobile phones as a means of learning. Different devices could be used as well including ‘MP3/MP4 players, iPods, iPads, etc. Zaki and Yunus (2015) summarise several core features of MALL that attract students’ attention and willingness to use it effectively. First, the factor of mobility; students could use their devices anytime and anywhere. Second, another feature is internet access; learners have limitless connection so they are capable to receive the information anytime. Third, MALL provides students with the opportunity to communicate outside of the classroom. This keeps them in touch with the language as they will be able to use it more often. It also facilitates interaction between learners, which is crucial in developing communicative competence. Finally, it decreases the level of anxiety for shy students, which can be important to help them feel safer to express themselves.
Concerning the way in which MALL can be used in SLA, first, we have to consider the use of a long range of applications (e.g., whatsApp, Viber,), and websites (e.g., Kahoot, Socrative, Nearpod). These applications can be used to get in touch with students and maximize the time spent on L2 learning by sending them extensive reading and listening activities. We can also use a website such as Kahoot to create an contest and sit with our students in the classroom and set them into groups and start the contest. This can make them more motivated and can target the kinaesthetic type of learners who need to move and manipulate things to learn.
Subtitling and captioning
Captioning can be defined as the transcribed version of the spoken text in a movie or T.V, whereas subtitling is the use of the translated version of the spoken text, which is usually displayed on the bottom of the screen. Recently, research has indicated that the watching subtitled and captioned materials can help in SLA in the following ways.
First, Captioned and subtitled materials can work as scaffolding tools that make the meaning of words clear as it provides the viewer with visuals and real life situation, with the translation or transcript of the spoken text, which can be used as a reference for viewers to check when they are faced with a difficult word. Second, it also helps learners to get exposed to various accents and ways of interaction (WCLTA, 2013). Third, studies have shown that language retention can be improved by the watch of subtitled or captioned texts (Loftus, 2016).
To make use of this tool as teachers, we can create fully or partially captioned / subtitled videos that are adequate to the level of our students. For example, we can predict the words our students might not know based on our knowledge of their abilities. Then we can choose to display fully or partially subtitled / captioned videos. We can move gradually from using fully subtitled /captioned videos to partially subtitled/ captioned videos to encourage our students to become more independent second language listeners. In addition, we can use subtitled / captioned videos to encourage our students to get exposed to more extensive reading and listening texts, which for sure will have positive effects on their level in L2.
Conclusion
As we have seen so far, both personal and external factors affect the way different students acquire L2 and how efficient they do so. That’s why varying the teaching techniques used in classroom is highly important to serve various teaching styles. If students feel that their teaching styles, feelings, concerns and needs are taken into consideration, they will be highly be motivated to learn the language. In addition, using newly emerged approaches in SLA such as CLIL and immersion programs can make students learn the language in meaningful context and relate what they learn at school to their real life. In brief, we as teachers should modulate our teaching approaches to suit our students’ differences, and not the other way around. In other words, the fact that students are different is something that we can do nothing about. That is why we must accept this fact and try to accommodate to these differences as much as possible. This way more learning will definitely take place.
References
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