Causes and Risks of Poliovirus Infection

Thesis:

The poliovirus is a highly infectious virus that causes polio, which has debilitating signs and symptoms on the body and undiscovered treatments.

Introduction

The Poliovirus has been carbon dated back at least 6000 years ago in Egyptian mummies. It was also known to be a great health issue in the United States around the 20th century. However, in the 1950’s it subsided when vaccination for the virus was developed and made available to all individuals. This, in turn, helped to reduce polio significantly, allowing for the Americas, Europe, and the Western Pacific all to experience a polio-free environment. Great progress can be seen as the World Health Organization aids to permanently eradicate poliomyelitis. This virus can be contracted from an infected person mainly via the fecal-oral route. Polio affects the individual's central nervous system, infecting their spinal cord, allowing their ability to move taken away(paralysis). Persons who have not been vaccinated and have a low immune system is susceptible to the poliovirus. There is no cure for polio, however, a diagnosis can be made solely based on the patient’s history and symptoms they possess. The poliovirus is a highly infectious virus that causes polio, which has debilitating signs and symptoms on the body and undiscovered treatments.

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(A) A detailed, comprehensive description of the related microorganism

Polio otherwise known as poliomyelitis is a disabling life-threatening disease caused by the poliovirus that affects the central nervous system, sometimes producing paralysis (Daniel and Robbins, 1999). The virus is consisting of a single strand of positive-sense Ribonucleic acid genome and a protein capsid. The three serotypes of poliovirus carry are antigenically distinct (Oshinsky, 2006). Poliovirus is transmitted from person to person by means of oral contact with secretions or faecal material from an infected individual and it is secreted in feces for a few weeks following the infection (Daniel and Robbins, 1999). The poliovirus mostly affects children five years and under. It mostly peaks in temperate climates which may include summer and autumn, but in tropical regions, this is far less pronounced. The incubation period between first exposure and first symptoms can range anywhere from 3 (three) to 35 (thirty-five) days. It can also be transmitted by contaminated food and water (Smallman-Raynor, 2006).

(B) The life cycle of this microorganism

To add, Silvera (2013) explained the life cycle of the poliovirus in the following steps. Firstly, the poliovirus approaches a nerve cell via the bloodstream. Next the nerve cell receptors attach to the virus. The protein shell (Capsid) of the virus, breaks to release its Ribonucleic acid (genetic material) into the cell. The polio RNA moves toward a ribosome, the cell’s protein assembly station. Then the polio RNA takes over the ribosome and forces it to make more polio RNA and more capsid. The new polio capsid and the new polio RNA unite to form more poliovirus. The host cell swells and bursts, releasing thousands of new viruses back into the bloodstream (p51).

(C) Causes, incidences and risk factors

Cause

Also, the poliovirus usually enters the environment in the feces of someone who is infected. In areas with poor sanitation, the virus easily spreads from feces into the water system, or, by touch, into food. In addition, because of polio contagious nature, direct contact with an individual infected with the virus can cause polio (Daniel and Robbins, 1999). Even sometimes when there are no symptoms, Individuals who carry the poliovirus can spread it via their feces for weeks. Once the virus has entered the body, it infects the cells of the intestine and throat. The virus stays within the intestines for a while before spreading to other areas of the body. After which, it moves into the bloodstream where it can spread to the entire body (Daniel and Robbins, 1999).

Incidences

Many cases have been reported of the polioviruses about individuals and how it affects them. In 1955 two incidences were reported in the United States when two children develop high fever and then later become paralyzed. Two days after, four more children became affected. A nurse recalled taking her two children to get the vaccine that has just recently develop with a fair that her children may develop the virus as they play with other children and bathe in the sea. She recalls watching patients suffer as a result of the poliovirus, the ones who mourn because they are unable to help themselves and one as she recalled cried as a result of not being able to kill himself because he is paralyzed. Poliovirus has cause many damages in previous years before a vaccine has been developed or the eradication of the virus took effect (Fitzpatrick, 2020).

Risk factors

Furthermore, risk factors associated with polio includes immune deficiency and malnutrition. Polio and outbreaks generally exist and persist due to certain risk factors, including environmental, seasonal and behavioral. To understand this is very important in our communication planning which will provide the necessary information as to where we should point our attitudinal and behavioral focus. The disease itself presents both opportunities and challenges, and potentially key information to assist with design communication interventions (Daniel and Robbins, 1999).

Additional, risk factors for contracting polio includes traveling to places where polio is widespread or endemic, especially Afghanistan and Pakistan. Living with someone infected with polio can cause the spread of polio to those living with them. Having a weak immune system also put someone at risk. Pregnant women are more vulnerable to polio, however, it does not appear to have an effect on the unborn child. Working in a laboratory where live poliovirus is kept (De La Bedoyere, 2005).

D). How does the selected microorganism cause disease in its host?

Moreover, the poliovirus has total incapacity to survive by its own means, it must invade another organism to be able to reproduce itself with the help of the machinery that this invaded organism possesses. Oshinsky (2005) talks about this invading agent we refer to as the polio virus, as a virus that has long been known to researchers, but not until late in 1930 could the

virus could be visualized with the help of an electron microscope (p.8). Polio is an enteric type infection which means that it is related to infections that occur at the intestinal level. Polio spreads through contact with fecal waste, by hands that have not been washed and contaminated food or water.

The virus enters the body through the mouth, travels in the digestive tract and is expelled in the feces. The virus can multiply in the lymph nodes of the tonsils and throat, but the most suitable environment for it to multiply is in the small intestine. Commonly the infection produces symptoms that can sometimes be confused by another type of condition, such as headaches, nausea, and sometimes even no symptoms are present. Festvag, Straghelle, Gilhus, Rike, Schanke (2019) said that “Polio eventually enters the bloodstream from the small intestine, in 1-5% of people who get this infection, the virus will invade the spinal cord destroying nerve cells. If 90% of the anterior horn cells (motor neurons) have been infected, then it will cause paralytic poliomyelitis” (p.861).

E) Symptoms observed in the microbial host

De La Bedoyere (2005) states that polio symptoms can be grouped into nonparalytic polio, paralytic and post-polio syndrome. Typically, symptoms of polio start’ off as the common cold, include pyrexia, aches, fatigue, and nausea. These symptoms can gradually go away after a few days (2-5days). However, if the virus spreads to the central nervous system, it is then categorized as paralytic polio can happen within 3-4 days. Paralytic polio symptoms include stiffness; dyspnea, severe muscle aches and can even lead to meningitis and permanent damage like paralysis. Paralysis is the most severe effect and can subsequently lead to death because paralytic polio affects the muscles used to breathe. Years, after people who seem to recover from polio can develop post-polio syndrome, symptoms include arena, dyspnea, fatigue, atrophy and pain of the muscles. Usually, individuals who suffered severe paralysis tend to develop post-polio syndrome (p18).

F) Tests to detect the microbe in its host

According to, Evan and Kaslow (1997) methods of confirming suspected polio infection can be done through the following, firstly, by virus isolation and detection. This is where the poliovirus can be isolated from a stool specimen or pharyngeal swab. For, ideal detection two samples must be collected 24 hours apart. This should be done as soon as possible, most favorably within 14 days. To add, if the patient is noted to be unvaccinated serology testing would be useful, as can be utilized for diagnosing paralytic poliomyelitis. Again, the specimen should be ascertained, as soon as possible and 3 weeks after another convalescent specimen should be carried out. Then there is Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis (CSF) testing, sometimes called a lumbar tap. This method looks for evidence of the poliovirus in cerebrospinal fluid (p 592).

G) Current and future treatments for the control of the spread of this disease

Polio is not curable; however, there are ways to prevent polio disease (Johnston, 2002). According, to Johnston (2002) there are two types of vaccine that can prevent polio. One the inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) is given as an injection in the arm or leg, depending on the patient’s age (p.14). Two the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) is still used throughout much of the world (p.17). The polio vaccine aids in protecting children by preparing their bodies to fight against the poliovirus. Most children who have received all the recommended dosage of the inactivated polio vaccine will be protected from the poliovirus (p. 14).

Furthermore, Johnston (2002) expanded on the topic that certain infectious disease labs are playing a crucial role in the search for a drug that could aid the ongoing worldwide polio eradication initiative and help stop the spread of the paralyzing disease in a future outbreak or bio-attack” (p.1). They are screening compounds that could prove useful against polio. The ultimate goal of the work is to discover a broad spectrum anti-viral agent that could be developed as a therapy to treat the highly contagious poliovirus. The strategy put in place to mitigate the post-eradication exposure is by developing an antiviral drug that can fight against the poliovirus (Johnston, 2002).

Conclusion

Polio virus is an extremely life-threating virus which in turn causes the disease called polio. Individuals infected with the disease are paralyzed losing their ability to perform on their own. There are several steps that explain the process in which the virus attacks the system. Which ultimately results in the host cell releasing thousands of the virus into our bloodstream. The poliovirus is spread through fecal-oral and once released into the bloodstream it infects the entire body. Some signs and symptoms observes in the infected host include fever, pain in arms and legs, pain and stiffness in the back and neck, fatigue and vomiting. Polio is sadly being not curable but, there are measures used to prevent it. In children for example vaccinations can be given to ensure they don’t contract the virus. This has allowed the virus to become less of a risk in many individuals, however, the ultimate goal is to permanently get rid of polio is by developing an anti-viral drug which can destroy it.

Bibliography

1. Daniel, T. and Robbins, F. (1999). Polio. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press.
2. De La Bedoyere, G. (2005). The first polio vaccine. London: Evans Brothers Limited.
3. Evans, S., & Kaslow, S. (1997). Viral Infections of Human, Epidemiology and Control (4th Edition). London: Plenum medical book company.
4. Fitzpatrick, M. (2020). The Cutter Incident: How America's First Polio Vaccine Led to a Growing Vaccine Crisis. [online] PubMed Central (PMC). Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1383764/ [Accessed 29 Feb. 2020].
5. Johnston, R. (2002). Options for Poliomyelitis Vaccination in the United States. [Place of publication not identified]: [publisher not identified].
6. Lostroh, P. (2019). Molecular and Cellular Biology of Viruses. Garland Science.
7. Oshinsky, D. M. (2005). Polio: An American Story. New York: Oxford University Press.
8. Silvera, D. (2013). Aspects of poliovirus replication.
9. Smallman-Raynor, M. (2006). Poliomyelitis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.