Weakness in military recruitment was only the beginning of issues for the Republic. Crises kept occurring throughout 149 BCE-88 BCE. The Romans didn’t care for any new city-states so they intentionally minimized administration, which caused issues with provinces. The provinces felt they lacked contributions to the Roman government. An extortion court began in 149 BCE to try corrupt governors but was not very effective. The government continuously failed to integrate provinces into administration or society. Soon arose the Agricultural-Military Crisis as thousands of farmers were fighting Roman Wars instead of working their land and the army recruiting base became small. In 133 BCE, Tiberius Gracchus, a tribune of the plebs, tried to relieve this crisis by enforcing a Land Law. Tiberius had power in his position and as a result, a group of senators murdered him and hundreds of his supporters. The Italian allies felt a strong burden from Rome’s wars and felt they weren’t benefitting; in 125 BCE, a bill was pushed for their Roman citizenship and was denied. Italians threatened to leave the alliance so Romans needed to act fast. Tiberius’ brother, Gaius rose to the tribune position in 123 BCE, expanded land distribution, and transferred the extortion court to the knights, working against the senate. The senate lost some power. Gaius and his supporters ended up being executed, a corrupt act making it clear that the current senate was not working. In 103 BCE, an uncontrollable slave revolt occurred. Italian allies were tired and had enough. In 95 BCE, Italians in Rome were expelled and son of Gaius Gracchus, and his Roman supporters, was assassinated for encouraging the senate to enfranchise Italians. The Italians had had it at this point and began a revolt known as the Social War in 90 BCE. They created their own country, Italia, with a senate and formed an army. Slave population increased and Romans were treating these slaves so poorly that in 73 BCE, a slave led a very strong army that harshly defeated Roman armies. In the final years of the Republic, downfall was catalyzed by the triumvirates. In the first triumvirate, the senators Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar, took authority away from the senate. These guys got everything they wanted at first but their group soon crashed and burned.
In the final downfall of the Roman Republic, the two triumvirates were only dragging the Republic down. After the first triumvirate collapsed, with Caesar being the only remaining member and soon being assassinated, the second triumvirate arose. The senators in the second triumvirate were all huge fans of Caesar and sought revenge against Caesar’s enemies. The group formed in 43 BCE by Lepidus, Antony, and Octavian. The three split up in their control of the Roman world, dividing the world into three parts. Lepidus controlled Spain and Africa, Octavian had Italy and Gaul, and Antony took care of the East. These three had more tension among them than the first triumvirate and formed malice intent amongst themselves eventually. Octavian was the most successful of the three and gained much power after defeating many in battles. He then sought Lepidus and exiled him in a small town which forced Lepidus to retire. Antony and Octavian were left to control the Roman world split up into two parts but soon they turned against each other with their own armies. Antony’s men lost their desire to follow him and even turned over to Octavian. When Antony realized his fate, he fled to Egypt knowing he would survive there. This left Octavian with an extremely large military force and left him powerful. Throughout 31 BCE - 21 BCE, Octavian returned to Rome as an administrator, a more suitable role for him, gained power and respect, reformed Rome and solidified his own power and the Roman Principate. Octavian wanted to restore the Republic in some way. He received a new title and name, Augustus. He quickly gained respect and admiration from the people. It was to be realized that the Roman Republic was dead and something new was rising. The Roman Empire had begun in 27 BCE and Augustus called it ‘The Principate’.
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The matter of incorporation of inhabitants for the Roman Empire, perhaps referred to as ‘immigration’ today, was very important for the Empire to be successful and Augustus knew this. I couldn’t agree more with Augustus’ choice to actively begin integrating the inhabitants of provinces into the Roman World. This helped to give a welcoming feeling to the provinces from the Romans. This has been an issue in the Republic but was so crucial. Having good participation and inclusion from the provinces was important so that they would feel they had the same interests as the Romans. This would lead the provinces to fight willingly alongside of the Romans with their own hearts and motivate them to stay loyal to the Empire. The incorporation of inhabitants into the Empire was so important because without it, the provinces would revolt and not cooperate as occurred before in the Republic. Literal wars are avoided as long as this incorporation is maintained. Augustus fueled the Golden Age of Roman Literature when he obtained poets and writers. The literature that blossomed in the Roman Empire was very impactful and important to the people. For example, a hymn was written in honor of the Secular Games, which are a big event for the Romans that marks a significant time period. I see this as a way to celebrate an important tradition. Also, one of the best works, the ‘Aeneid’, became a Roman national Epic and some of it was taught to schoolchildren. Expanding the education to literature was important to increase knowledge. Another piece on Roman history had quite an impact. Having Roman’s history written in literature is important to preserve the history. This work also persuaded Greeks to think of Roman Rule with some positive aspects to it and that Romans were truly an ancient part of the Greek world. This brings recognition to the Romans. In general, society in Pax Romana was finally in a good place. Rightful citizenship was important for the Roman Empire because lacking it brought chaos to the Republic. The senate also became more representative of the people and this brings the government closer to the people. Women were gaining more rights and this meant that now everyone was participating in social and cultural activities equally which brought men and women as people closer together. Slaves are not to be forgotten as a part of the society as well. Slaves were being treated better at this point and were more satisfied and compliant. This meant that senators could leave their estates having trust in the slaves and knew their estates were being well maintained.
Overall, the Empire seemed to have successfully fixed those issues that gave the Republic so much trouble.
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