Introduction
Creatine is thought to improve strength, increase lean muscle mass, and help muscles recover. Creatine supplements may help athletes achieve bursts of speed and energy, especially during short bouts of high-intensity activities such as sprinting. Swimmers need some factors such as strength and power of muscles to help improve their performances. Studies have found that creatine can be beneficial in improving performance during repeated bouts of high-intensity anaerobic activity. Creatine supplementation may benefit swimmers by improving the quality of training, increasing PCr storage, and promoting lean tissue accretion (Silva, Machado-Reis, Guidetti, Bessone-Alves, Mota, et. al., 2007).
Review of literature
The first article, effect of creatine supplementation on training for competition in elite swimmers (2005), looked at how creatine doesn’t have an effect during single sprint bouts, but does have an effect when repeated sprints are performed (Peyrebrune, Stokes, Hall, & Nevill (2005)/. The benefit of this ergogenic effect in swimming is to enhance training during practice so when single sprints are performed during competition, a swimmers performance will improve. Twenty-three swimmers (14 men, 9 women) from a university club swim team began the training study. All subjects were involved in eight to ten swimming sessions per week, for 28 weeks. All subjects performed an initial sprint and endurance test, followed by a period of 20 grams of creatine supplementation and then repeated the sprint test. After these tests were performed, each subject was assigned to either an experimental group or control group based on their times, events and initial standard from the test sets. Subjects performed five testing sessions over the course of the swimming season. Tests were performed before and after a five-day supplementation period. The supplementation period involved two high-dosage five-day loading phases and a low-dose phase between weeks 22 and 27. While tests were performed, subjects warmed up for 25 minutes and were asked to exert maximal effort on each repetition.
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All subjects were provided with 20 premeasured supplement packets with five-grams of creatine in each, plus five grams of glucose and were instructed to mix with hot water, then immediately consume at 9:00, 12:00, 15:00, and 18:00 hour for each of the five-day loading dose period (Peyrebrune, et. al., 2005). Subjects in the creatine group took three grams of creatine and subjects in the placebo control group were given ten grams of glucose and were instructed to consume them at 12:00 hour every day for a period between 22 and 27 weeks. Body mass after the 28-week creatine supplementation had shown an increase when compared to the placebo group. No differences were seen in training volume between the groups during the 22-27-week period. During the repeated sprint test, mean times were faster in the creatine supplement group. The main findings of the study were that, during a 22-27 week creatine dosage period, did not show significantly improve competitive swimming performance or performance during a repeated sprint test in elite competitors. All subject improved their repeated sprint performance after an initial loading dose, but did not show continuous improvement throughout the 28-week study period. The main focus of the results is to confirm that creatine supplementation of 20 grams per day for five days, does show improvement in repeated spring swimming but that an additional supplementation protocol during the 22-27-week period of training, does not enhance the competitive performance of elite swimmers.
The second article being evaluated by Silva, et. al., (2007), looked at how creatine can have an influence on performance related hydrodynamic variables during sprint swimming. An increase in total muscle creatine through creatine supplementation may provide an ergogenic effect by enhancing the rate of ATP synthesis during sprints (Silva, et. al., 2007). Other studies have looked at how creatine has an effect on single-sprints or repeated sprints, but no studies have evaluated how creatine effects performance and body composition, along with hydrodynamic variables that are related to swimming. Hydrodynamic variables include the drag, the power input, and mechanical power output, when propelling through the water. These variables could potentially lead to an improvement in swimming efficiency and a better propelling efficiency. The aim of this study was to look at the effect of a 21 day creatine dose on swimming performance, performance related to hydrodynamic variables and on body composition in national junior competitive female swimmers. Sixteen national level competitive female swimmers participated in a three week (21 day) experimental study. The subjects were randomly assigned to either a creatine supplementation group or placebo supplementation group. The experiment started just before the last and most important competitive training period of the swimming season. The creatine group consumed 20 grams per day, that was dissolved in 150 mL of water. The placebo group consumed the same water, just without the creatine. The subjects went through a pre-and post-supplementation period. The subjects performed all the swimming tests on the same stroke (freestyle). A Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis was used to measure body weight and mass. All subjects underwent a performance assessment that consisted of a 25-meter swim at maximum effort. After the performance assessment, subjects performed two maximum 25-meter bouts to measure hydrodynamic variables. The first 25-meter swim was a free swim, while during the second 25-meter swim, the subject towed a hydrodynamic body (small cylinder filled with water attached to a floating board) behind them. Results showed that there were no significant differences between the two groups during pretreatment testing. However, there were significant differences between the two groups in the active drag and power output. The creatine did not show any improvement over a three-week period in a 25-meter swim. The junior female swimmers that were analyzed did not improve their 25-meter swimming performance after creatine supplementation. Although there were no significant changes in body weight, body mass or performance, hydrodynamic variables did show differences between the pre-and-post assessment. In summary, the results have shown that creatine supplementation during a three-week period may be beneficial for an improvement in gross and propelling efficiency of junior female swimmers, but showed no improvement in body weight, body mass, or swimming performance during a 25-meter swim (Silva, et. al., 63, 2007).
Selsby, Beckett, Kern & Devor (2003), all looked at the effects on swim performance following creatine supplementation in division III athletes. The aim of this study was to closely define the role of creatine in swimming. Eight male and seven female Division III swimmers, participated in this study. Subjects were assigned in a double-blind manner to either a creatine supplementation group or a placebo group. 0.3 grams per kilogram of body weight of creatine was provided for each subject and were instructed to consume four times a day. Following the five-day loading phase, the creatine group ingested 2.25 grams of creatine daily during a nine-day maintenance phase. Performance tests were completed in a 25-yard pool. Subjects were divided into different heats based on ability and speed seen during warm-up. Following the warm-up period, all subjects participated in a 50 and 100-yard freestyle sprint. In the 50-yard sprint, the creatine supplementation group swam at a faster time when compared to the placebo group. The creatine group swam about .26 seconds faster than the placebo group. The same findings were present in the 100-yard sprint. The consumption of 0.3 grams per kilogram of body weight of creatine loading dose, followed by a nine-day maintenance dose has shown to increase swimming performance in the 100 and 50-yard sprint.
The purpose of this next study written by Roshan, Babaei, Hosseinzadeh, & Arendt-Nielson (2013), was to examine the effects of creatine supplementation on muscle fatigue and physiological indicators after intermittent swimming bouts. Sixteen active non-elite swimmers participated in the study. Resistance training and jogging were restricted during the time of the experiment. Subjects performed a 100-meter swim in the preliminary trial. Each swimmer was then divided into a creatine supplementation group or a placebo group, then participated in a main trial that included 6x50 meter swim of high intensity exercise at maximum effort. All trials were performed at the same time of the day after a controlled warm-up that consisted of a 600-meter swim, 200 kicks, 200 pulls, and 4x10 meter sprints. The creatine group consumed 5.0 grams of creatine four times (breakfast, lunch dinner, bed time) a day for six days. Subjects mixed the creatine powder in 250mL of warm water and consumed immediately. There were no differences seen between the creatine and placebo group when body weight, mass and height were compared. Percent of speed decrement was significantly lower after the third sprint when compared to the placebo group. There was an increase in blood lactate, creatine levels, but no significant differences between the two groups. These results can confirm that there are beneficial effects of the creatine supplementation for improving interval spring swimming performance in well-trained but non-elite athletes (Roshan, et. al., 238, 2013).
The last study that is being examined written by Dawson, Vladich, & Blanksby (2002) was aimed towards whether the administration of creatine over a four-week period, in conjunction with regular training, could improve single sprint swimming performance in junior swimmers. The subjects consisted of 10 young men and 10 young women. All subjects followed the same training program with the same coach during the four-week period. A 1x50-meter swim and 1x100-meter maximal effort swim were performed. After the initial tests were performed, participants reported to an exercise physiology laboratory for another assessment. The participants performed a simulated front crawl (freestyle) swim on a Biokinetic Swim Bench for five minute, followed by a static stretching routine. Once the participants were warmed-up and stretched, they returned to the swim bench to perform two, 30-second maximal effort tests with a ten-minute rest period in between the two. Participants were divided into either a creatine supplementation group or a placebo group. The creatine group consumed five grams of creatine powder, that was combined with one gram of glucose powder. The placebo group consumed six grams of glucose powder only. Two supplementation regimens were performed, a loading phase and a maintenance phase. The loading phase consisted of consuming the supplements four times a day at intervals of two to three hours, for five days. The maintenance phase consisted of five grams of the creatine or placebo for a period of 22 days, for a combined total of 27 days. After the 27-day supplementation period, the same swim and laboratory tests were performed.
There were no significant differences seen between the creatine and placebo group when the 50 and 100-meter swims that were done in the pool were looked at. After supplementation, the creatine group showed improvement on the output score on the swim bench test. Although, improvements were seen in the creatine group on the swim bench test, it came to conclusion that there is no evidence to suggest that the creatine supplementation enhanced junior sprint swim performance by the effects of the four-week training block (Dawson, et. al., 489, 2002).
Conclusion
All articles but one looked at both male and female subjects. When looking at both genders, it was shown that sprint performance improved. The one article written by Silva et. al. (2007) only looked at female subjects and the results showed that there was no improvement in the sprint performances. Females response to the creatine supplementation, in terms of performance, may take longer to be effective or may not have any effect at all. Since the other studies looked at males and females, the results may have shown improvement from the male swimmers and from the results being pooled together as one (Dawson et. al., 2002; Peyrebrune, et. al., 2005; Roshan et. al., 2013; Selsby, et. al., 2003; Silva, et. al., 2007). Most of the studies performed their assessments on a 50 and 100-meter/yard swim. Having to perform flip turns during the assessment, may have an influence on the whether or not creatine supplementation can have an influence on sprint swimming performance. Whether or not it was a meter or yard pool, showed no difference in the creatine showing improvement. The article written by Silva, et. al., performed their assessments by swimming 25-meters, instead of a 50 or 100. Just by swimming a 25, no improvement was shown and sprint performance did not increase. These results show that a swim longer than a 25 but shorter than a 100, is the best time for creatine to show improvement in sprint performance. Races that last 30 seconds to one minute may be the best time for creatine to enhance sprint swim performance. All studies took a blood sample before and after the tests were performed, to see how blood lactate had an influence on the swim performance.
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