Analytical Essay on Ottoman Empire: Geography, History and Economy

Geography:

Turkey has a very unique geographical position that is accompanied by even more unique geographical features. Turkey stretches about 1,000 miles west to east and about 300-400 miles north to south and has about a 4,000-mile boundary. Unsurprisingly, Turkey is one of the largest countries in its surrounding area, both in terms of territory and in terms of population. Turkey has the largest land area in Europe and the ninth largest land area in Asia with a staggering 302,535 mi² of territory (World Population Review) (Britannica). Turkey also has the third largest population in Europe and the ninth largest population in Asia with a substantial 82,887,000 citizens as of 2019 (WorldOMeters) (World Atlas). Turkey is bordered on the north by the Black Sea, on the northeast by Georgia and Armenia, on the east by Azerbaijan and Iran, on the southeast by Iraq and Syria, on the southwest and west by the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea, and on the northwest by Greece and Bulgaria. Since Turkey is bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and the narrows that connect the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea (the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles) about ¾ of Turkey’s 4,000-mile boundary is maritime. Because of Turkey’s massive size, it lies in both Europe and Asia, however, 95% of the country is within Asian territory and only 5% is in European territory. The section of Turkey within Asian territory is referred to as Asia Minor and is also known as Anatolia/Anadolu. The far eastern portion of Asia Minor is also very mountainous and is often referred to as the Armenian Highlands of Eastern Anatolia/Anadolu. The other 5% of Turkey lies in far southwestern European territory, this area is referred to as the Turkish Thrace or just the Trakya and is just a small remnant of the once mighty Ottoman Empire that ruled over most of the Balkans (Britannica). Throughout Turkey’s history, it has acted as a source of both protection and transportation because it is in both Europe and Asia and bridges the gap between the two continents (History World). Turkey is a very large country that contains unique geographical features and is situated in a unique geographical position.

Climate:

Turkey has a climate that varies greatly because of its geographical features and geographical position. Turkey’s coasts and most of its inland territory has a mild Mediterranean climate, with warm, dry summers and rainy, moderate winters. Most regions of Turkey receive an average of 20-25 inches of rain per year. Eastern Anatolia/Anadolu has a much more extreme climate than the rest of Turkey. Most of Eastern Anatolia/Anadolu is far from the sea and has an average elevation of 5,000-6,500 feet. These two factors combined create a harsh continental climate with long winters and short summers. During the winter, Eastern Anatolia/Anadolu is very cold and snowy, during summer the weather is cool in the highlands and warm in the lowlands. The region has the lowest average temperature of all Turkish regions, -13 °F. However, it can get below -40 °F. The average summer temperature in the Eastern Anatolia/Anadolu region is about 68 °F (Britannica). Turkey’s climate varies based on a region’s geographical features and geographical position.

History:

Turkey has a very rich history, yet the nation has had to endure chaotic and trying times to get to where it is today. Turkish history spans a time frame of more than 4000 years. The Turkish people first inhabited Central Asia in 2000 BC. Years later, many Turks left Central Asia and began to spread out. These migrating Turks established many independent states and empires in Asia and Europe. These empires included The Great Hun Empire (3rd Century B.C.), the Göktürk Empire (552-740), the Uygur Empire (741-840), the Avar Empire (6-9 Century A.D.), the Khazar Empire (5-10 Century A.D), the Great Seljuk Empire (1040-1157) (TCF). Turkish history is long and has seen many great empires over its time.

The Turks began to settle Anatolia in the early eleventh century with migrations and incursions. Victory against the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 left the gates of Anatolia open to the Turkish people. After 1071 the Turks fully conquered all of Anatolia and established the Anatolian Seljuk State. This was the first Turkish state in Anatolia and was sometimes referred to as the Konya Sultanate after its capital city (TCF). The first Turks settled and conquered Anatolia and established the Seljuk state there.

The Seljuk state quickly broke down after the Mongol invasion of Anatolia in 1243. During the time of the collapse of the Anatolian Seljuk state and after it completely disappeared, many Turkish territories were established at the end of the thirteenth century. One of these Territories was the Ottoman Beylik/Territory. The Ottoman Beylik was named after its founder, Osman who founded the territory in 1299. The Ottoman Beylik was located in the environs of Söğüt in Eskişehir, which is simply just the northwestern corner of modern Turkey. The Ottoman Beylik expanded rapidly during the fourteenth century and grew into the Ottoman Empire (TCF). The Ottoman Empire grew from a small beylik/territory into a vast and powerful sultanate.

The Ottomans won control of Constantinople in 1453 under the rule of Sultan Mehmet II. The Ottoman victory at Constantinople caused the Byzantine empire to fall. The fall of the Byzantine Empire also marked the end of the Middle Ages and the start of the New Age. During the rule of Sultan Mehmet II the Ottoman state entered into a time of great prosperity that would last until nearly the end of the sixteenth century (TCF). At the height of the Empire, the Ottomans ruled over what is now Greece, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Albania, and Romania in the Balkans, over all the islands in the Eastern Mediterranean, and over what is now the Middle East (Geopolitical Futures Team). The massive borders of the Ottoman Empire extended from Crimea in the North to Yemen and Sudan in the South and from Iran and the Caspian Sea in the East to Vienna in the Northwest and Spain in the Southwest (Geopolitical Futures Team). The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest and most powerful empires in history.

In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire slowly lost its economic and military superiority compared to Europe. Europe had developed much faster than the Ottoman Empire with the Renaissance, its conquest of new territories, Its access to raw materials, and the Industrial Revolution. The Ottoman Empire wasn't able to adapt to these new advancements. This caused the power to shift to the European States. More factors piled onto that as well, like the rebellions of the Balkan nations. These rebellions were supported by Europe and Russia. All these factors combined slowly brought the Ottoman Empire into a state of decline (TCF).

The weakening of the Ottoman Empire continued until World War I. The Ottoman Empire went into the First World War in 1914 with the allied powers and came out defeated from the war in 1918. The Empire was pressured into signing the Mondros Armistice on October 30, 1918. Under this Armistice, the territories of the Ottoman Empire were occupied by Britain, France, Russia, and Greece. This was finally the end of the Ottoman Empire (TCF).

A national resistance and liberation movement surfaced after the Ottoman Empire fell. The Turks wanted the land of the former Ottoman Empire back. The land was now occupied by Greece, Armenia, France, Italy, and the United Kingdom. The resistance was led by Mustafa Kemal. Kemal was an Ottoman military commander who mobilized Anatolia in his quest for Turkish national independence. Kemal united disorganized resistance groups in Anatolia and organized them into a somewhat structured army. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (later given the last name Ataturk meaning 'Father of Turks'), the resistance was coordinated. The Turks were now finally ready to fight the war for Turkish national independence (TCF). Under Kemal, the Turkish resistance was able to unite and prepare to fight for their independence.

The Turkish National Liberation War was an attempt to create a new state from the ruins of the Ottoman Empire. The war lasted four years, from 1919 to 1922. During the war, a small army of volunteers fought and won against leading world powers such as Britain, France, Greece, and Armenia. There were over 38,000 Turkish casualties, 35,000 soldiers were wounded and 7,000 were taken, prisoner. Greece was shaken the most, however, Sustaining 24,600 military casualties and a massive 264,000 civilian casualties. In the end, the Turks came out on top and rightfully won their independence. Kemal’s victory was military, as well as diplomatic. The Turkish military victory was certain with the diplomatic signing of the Lausanne Peace Treaty on July 24, 1923. The treaty was signed with Britain, France, Greece, Italy, Armenia, and others. The Treaty addressed the creation and international borders of a new Turkish State and guaranteed its complete independence (TCF). Turkey had to fight very hard for its independence and won it against all odds.

The Republic of Turkey was finally declared on October 29, 1923. This meant that the people of Turkey enjoyed self-rule. Mustafa Kemal was also elected as the first president of the Republic of Turkey. Kemal was president for 15 years until he died in 1938. During his presidency, Mustafa Kemal introduced many reforms in the political, social, legal, economic, and cultural areas of Turkey. He created a new political and legal system based on the principles of parliamentary democracy, divided government powers, and worked on modernizing Turkey. Soon, Turkey became a modern nation and is still a good example for Third World countries trying to break into the modern world (TCF). Kemal positively affected his country unlike any leader in the world at the time.

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Economy:

Since Turkey’s creation in 1923, it has operated a mixed economy. In this mixed economy, both the government and private enterprises help economic development. Until about 1950 Turkey was leading the world in industrialization. The country used most of its money for structural improvements like building railways, ports, and shipping facilities and for the establishment of industries like mining, metallurgy (the study of the chemical makeup of metals), and chemicals. Turkey also invested in manufacturing, such as the food-processing, textile, and building-material sectors. During this time foreign trade only played a small role in the Turkish economy. By the late 1970s, the economy of Turkey was riddled with high inflation, high unemployment rates, and a massive foreign trade deficit. In the 1980s there were further shifts in Turkey’s economy, including a strong drive to export goods to other countries. By the 1990s inflation was still a very serious problem. Inflation had reached nearly 100 percent by 1997. To combat the inflation problem Turkey started an 18-month economic monitoring program. The program succeeded and greatly decreased the rate of inflation for the next two years. A financial crisis in 2000-2001 forced Turkey to create more reforms to get out of the economic slump. Economic growth was strong in the first decade of the 21st century, until 2009. In 2009 a Turkish global economic crisis pushed the country into a short recession that was followed by a recovery. The end of this final Turkish recovery effort resulted in the modern Turkish economy (Britannica). Turkey has had a troublesome economy and the Turkish government had to fight to establish the economy we see today.

The official currency of Turkey is the Turkish lira (abbreviated TL). The lira has greatly dropped in value many times since it was introduced in 1844. The lira’s value fluctuates so much that the Guinness Book of Records gave it the world’s least valued currency record twice, in 1995 - 1996, and from 1999 - 2004. Today the Turkish lira is equivalent to 0.17 USD (XE). Currently, in Turkey, there are 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 200 lira banknotes and 1, 5, 10, 25, and 50 kurus coins (100 kurus make up one lira) and 1 lira coins (Global Exchanges). The Turkish lira is an extremely unstable currency that changes value frequently.

The Turkish employment rate was 43.37% on average from 2005 to 2019 (Trading Economics). The Turkish unemployment rate was 13.9% in July of 2019 (Trading Economics). Turkey’s agricultural sector is the largest source of employment in Turkey. Agriculture employs about one-fourth of the entire Turkish workforce (Britannica). Agriculture has provided the most jobs in Turkey even as other more modern industries have started to grow (Chatham University). Textile and clothing production also employs about one-third of the industrial workforce, making it the biggest industrial employer (Britannica). Turkey has average employment and unemployment rates compared to other countries around the world and depends on the agricultural and textile and clothing sectors to employ most citizens.

The biggest industry in Turkey is services, which was responsible for a massive 53.37% of the country’s GDP in 2017 (Pletcher). Turkey's largely free-market economy over time has been driven increasingly more by its service sectors (CIA). The services sector of Turkey includes wholesale, retail trade, transport, financial services, education, health care, tourism, and real estate (The Global Economy). Turkey greatly depends on its services sector to strengthen the economy.

Turkey houses a large amount of manufacturing enterprises. Manufacturing was responsible for about 29.16% of the country’s GDP in 2017 and is the second biggest industry in Turkey (Pletcher). A large amount of Turkey’s manufacturing industry's production comes from four industrialized zones. These zones include Istanbul and the area around the Sea of Marmara, the Aegean coast around İzmir, the Adana basin, and the region around Ankara. The most manufactured things in Turkey are chemicals, food, beverages, tobacco, textiles, clothing, and shoes. Turkey is also the Middle East’s leading steel producer. Turkey produces so much steel that the country supplies themselves with it. The main steel plants are at Karabük, Ereğli, and İskenderun. Metallurgy happens at several sites. Metallurgy sites are located in Göktaş, Ergani, and Antalya (Britannica). The manufacturing sector is incredibly important to Turkey and is one of Turkey’s biggest sources of economic gain.

Agriculture is Turkey’s third biggest industry and was responsible for 6.08% of the country’s GDP in 2017 (Pletcher). Turkey’s agricultural sector is the largest source of employment in Turkey. Agriculture employs about one-fourth of the entire Turkish workforce. About one-third of Turkey’s land area is used for agriculture. The most important field crops in Turkey are cereals. Cereals take up one-half of all farming area in Turkey. Cereal land plants are wheat, with smaller areas of barley, rye, oats, corn, and rice. Other important crops are cotton, sugar beets, tobacco, and potatoes. Livestock farming is also a major part of the Turkish agricultural industry. Turkey has large numbers of cattle, sheep, goats, and water buffalo on their livestock farms. Turkish agricultural products also make a lot of money from exports. Cotton, tobacco, fruits, vegetables, nuts, livestock, and livestock products are the main agricultural items Turkey exports (Britannica). The agricultural sector of Turkey is incredibly important, not just in strengthening the economy, but also in employing citizens.

Foreign trade has played a very important role in Turkey’s economy since World War II (Brittanica). Turkey has the 27th largest export economy in the world. In 2017, Turkey exported $166B and imported $214B. Turkey’s top exports are Cars ($13.2B), Gold ($6.96B), Delivery Trucks ($5.04B), Vehicle Parts ($4.64B), and Jewelry ($3.39B). Turkey’s top imports are Gold ($17.1B), Refined Petroleum ($9.8B), Cars ($8.78B), Vehicle Parts ($6.34B), and Scrap Iron ($5.84B). The top countries Turkey's exports include Germany ($17.4B), the United Kingdom ($10.1B), Italy ($9.4B), the United Arab Emirates ($9.2B), and Iraq ($9.1B). Turkey imports goods from China ($23B), Germany ($22.5B), Russia ($13.2B), Italy ($11.4B), and the United States ($11.3B) (OEC). Turkey has a large export economy with many leading countries that it depends on to make money.

Government:

Turkey experienced a short time of authoritarian rule under Mustafa Kemal and his successor Ismet İnönü. Parliamentary democracy was established in 1950 and has mostly remained in power since then. Turkish parliamentary democracy has been interrupted by short periods of military government at times when civilian rule was ineffective. These periods of military government occurred in 1960–61, 1971–73, and 1980–83. After the military’s rule ended the citizens were given a revised constitution. The modern Turkish constitution was established in 1982 and has been amended many times since then (Britannica). The Constitution also outlines the separation of executive, legislative and judicial powers in Turkey (Bacchanal).

Executive power in Turkey was originally divided between the prime minister, house of ministers, and the president. But, in 2017 the majority of voters wanted to get rid of the prime minister and house of ministers and expand the president’s power (Britannica). Today, the president is the main executive body. The president is able to call or dissolve the Grand National Assembly, return legislation to the assembly, refer laws to the constitutional court, declare a state of emergency for up to six months, submit constitutional changes, appoint a cabinet, form and regulate ministries, declare a state of emergency, and draft the budget (Sansal). Presidents also have a term of five years and can be re-elected one more time unless the assembly allows him/her to serve a third term. The current president of Turkey is Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.

The main legislative body in Turkey is a 600-member parliament. This parliament is called the Grand National Assembly. The assembly is elected by Turkish citizens for a five-year term. members of the assembly are chosen based on how much their specific political party represents the national vote. Extremist parties are banned from joining the assembly and no party that has less than 10 percent of the national vote can be represented in the assembly. The assembly has the power to enact, amend, and repeal laws and can veto the president. The assembly also decides the budget and makes decisions about the printing of currency. In addition, the assembly approves international treaties and has the power to declare war (Britannica).

Judicial power in Turkey is held by independent courts and supreme courts. The Turkish judiciary system is divided into an administrative judiciary, a legal judiciary, and a special judiciary. The Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court of Appeals, the Council of State (highest court), the Supreme Military Court of Appeals, the Supreme Military Administrative Court, and the Court of Jurisdictional Conflicts are the Turkish supreme courts. The current chief justice of the Council of State is Zerrin Güngör. Higher court decisions also influence lower courts to make punishments for the same crime similar to make the system fairer (Turkish Politics & Elections).