Factors And Approaches That Influence Second Language Acquisition

Introduction

Some students learn faster and easily a new language than others. Clearly, some language learners are successful by virtue of their sheer determination, hard work and persistence. Nevertheless, there are other crucial factors influencing success that can’t be controlled by the learner. These factors can be broadly categorized as internal and external. Complex interaction of these factors determines the speed and facility with which the new language is acquired.

This essay describes the factors and approaches that influence second language acquisition (SLA) process which affect the learner. First, some SLA theories are described in literature review. Then, contributing factors in second language acquisition such as age, personality, motivation, learning styles are discussed in this essay. Then recent approaches that benefit SLA such as mobility and sociocultural theory are reviewed. Some factors and approaches are dominant, and some others are being equal but each of them gives different contribution for the success or the failure of SLA.

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Literature review

There are many theories researched by the linguists to spot the differences and similarities between first language acquisition and second language acquisition. For example, Krashen focused on the age role in SLA. He dictated that the difference between an adult learner and a child learner ability of language acquisition, where adults use subconscious and conscious processes, whereas children use only the subconscious processing. He referred to the conscious process in which the adult learner of a second language analyzes the rules and forms of a language as ‘monitor’. Also, he emphasizes that achieving a native-like proficiency requires us to encourage L2 learners to use the same means that children use when they acquire their first language. For that reason, Krashen’s recommendation was to inform the teachers that they should help their students acquire a language rather than learning it consciously.

Another great linguist Chomsky has conducted the studies which have had a major impact on SLA research where the views on language, the learner, and the learning process that supplanted those framed by theories of structuralism and behaviorism were carried out. Then, as SLA research has matured, and the key constructs which form its theoretical basis have become established, the field has become better able to look outwards and investigate the role of different contexts of learning. Afterwards, interest in grammar pedagogy were renewed (Lightbown 2002), partly because of the perceived failure of contexts of learning promoting 'natural' communication (Communicative Language Teaching) in producing learners who are consistently accurate in their productions. Consequently, the role of instruction and the role of the input in facilitating the L2 learning process have attracted more interest for numerous researches.

Traditional factors that contribute to SLA

Age

The matter of age is one of the enduring topics in the studies of SLA (Birdsong 2006). It has been decisive for the educational decisions concerning language instruction and for the description of differences between children and adults’ abilities in SLA. Neurologists Penfield and Roberts (1959) were the first to advocate that the younger the learner is, the quicker and easier language would be acquired, however, they claimed that there were maturational effects on language learning. In 1967 Lenneberg had established the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) in the area of language acquisition with the need for further and continuous research and assessment. The Johnson and Newport (1989) study was the first to test the Critical Period in SLA and to find positive evidence to show that the Age Factor has an impact on the acquisition of the basic properties of the English grammar. Young learners who already have solid literacy skills in their own language, tend to acquire a new language more efficiently. Older learners who are highly motivated can also achieve success in second language (L2) learning, although, they strive to acquire native-speaker-equivalent pronunciation and intonation.

Personality

Personality is a set of features that characterize an individual and it is extremely hard to define and measure this concept because of its complicated nature. Studies which investigate personality traits are based on the belief that learners use in the classroom not only their cognitive abilities but also affective states which influence their language acquisition. Some of these states may benefit SLA while the others may be seen as an obstacle. Introversion/extroversion, self-esteem, inhibition, risk-taking, anxiety and empathy are the most important personality factors. (Ellis, 1986, Patsy Lightbown, 2002) Introverted or anxious learners usually develop slowly their oral skills because they don’t take advantage of opportunities to speak or to seek out such opportunities. On the other hand, open and extraverted students do not worry about the inevitability of making mistakes. They normally tend to take risks providing more language practice.

Motivation

Motivation is one of the most important factors in SLA. Richards (1985) dictates motivation as a factor that determines a person’s desire to do something. It is clear that learners who want to learn are likely to achieve more than those who do not. Motivation role in SLA has been investigated by Gardner and Lambert (1972), who define motivation in terms of ‘the learner's overall goal or orientation’, and attitude as ‘the persistence shown by the learner in striving for a goal’. Motivation can be also distinguished into intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsically motivated behaviors enjoy the activity itself when extrinsically motivated expect a reward i.e. money, a praise or positive feedback. Many researchers claim that intrinsic motivation leads to greater success in learning a foreign language, especially in a long term. Lower motivation levels or lack of motivation causes hinder from active participation in learning and leads to reluctance in SLA.

Learning Styles

Learning style can be also called cognitive style, which is a particular way of learning something. In L2 or foreign language learning, different learner may need different solution to learning problems. Some learners may prefer grammar rules explanations (audio learners), some may feel writing down words and sentences in order to help them to remember (kinesthetic learners). Others may learn and remember things better if they are associated with picture (visual learners) (Richards: 1985). Ellis (1986) mentions that learning style or strategy accounts for how learners accumulate new L2 rules and how they automate existing ones. There are many factors that influence students’ learning styles such as genetic background, their culture and previous learning experience. If teachers match their teaching methods to the students’ learning styles, the students will be more successful and more interested in the language. Learning styles do not suggest the possible favorable outcome in L2, however, they show the most effective way to achieve the best results. Students are more likely to succeed in SLA when they are aware of their learning style, are highly motivated and have positive attitudes.

Recent approaches that benefit SLL

Mobility

The ways in which technology can be used to enhance L2 acquisition have shown to be broad, but the same basic principles of best practice for instructed SLA can still be applied. This is not to say that the role of technology should be ignored, but the fact that technology will necessarily make a difference to the overall learning environment must be kept in mind (Levy & Stockwell, 2006). Hence, technology has the same impact on the ways in which learners interact with the content, with other learners, or with the teacher. Notwithstanding, the ultimate aim of learning a language remains the same, and technologies may be used to facilitate the provided taking into consideration the affordances of the technology and the environment. Nowadays, there is a huge variety of online language learning courses as well as applications. Technology can be also used in face-to-face sessions to motivate and make learning process more attractive using internet web pages (i.e. YouTube, Kahoot, Socrative, PowToon, Quizlet, Instagram) and applications such as WhatsApp, Telegram or Messenger.

Sociocultural Theory

The Sociocultural theory, originally conceived by Lev S. Vygotsky, concider that language development emerges as a result of social interactions. This proposal tries to account for the ways in which learners can gain access to new knowledge about the language when they have support from an interlocutor. Therefore, the main tenet of this theory is that language learning is essentially a social mediation between the learner and someone else, where socially acquired knowledge becomes internalized (Cook, 2008b). Interaction with other individuals is vital in order to develop L2 acquisition. In this model, learning occurs when a learner interacts with an interlocutor in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Lantolf (2001) explains that this is a metaphor used by Vygotsky in order to show the difference between learners performing on their own, and what they accomplish when there is assistance from cultural artifacts or someone else. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is another that fits perfectly the Sociocultural theory. In this style, languages are learned through communication, and the activities in the classroom should be focused on encouraging students to be engaged in speaking. Such activities should simulate real life situations. and the acquisition process may be materialized through talking.

Pedagogical aspects

The process of SLA/FLA can be effective when both the leaner and the teacher are involved in the process and extract the most out of it. Having fun when learning/teaching is one of the ways to keep the motivation and interest levels high. When this is achieved all the problems of teaching and learning get resolved and better results are attained. Keeping in mind different learning styles it is better when teacher match the activities with the student’s learning preferences to help them acquire L2. Teacher always has to think about the age of the students when preparing adequate activities that match the maturity.

Living in the 21st century in a modern society applying CALL and MALL when needed taking into consideration the affordances of the technology and the environment sounds like an innovative idea to implement when teaching. With careful planning, instructors can design courses that encourage comprehensible input, output, interaction, and negotiation of meaning, characteristics identified by interactionist theorists as crucial for SLA. While distance second language courses may lack valuable face to face interaction, they do provide viable alternatives to learners that are geographically isolated or need flexible learning environments.

Conclusion and discussion

Several factors described in this essay influence SLA variedly. Individual differences are crucial factors in SLA. Those factors: age, personality, motivation, learning style, influence the way learners encounter language learning and may slow down or support them in their L2 acquisition. Moreover, not only individual differences influence SLA, input and sociocultural aspects also play a major role in language learning. These elements seem to be an essential part of the learning process, which can contribute to the success or failure of a second language learner. Teachers should adjust the teaching approaches to match the students’ differences and try to accommodate to these differences as much as possible to receive better SLA.

References

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5. Ellis, R. (1986). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press
6. Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers.
7. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
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