The study of human learning continues to develop and expand and as many theorists test their ideas and hypotheses in applied situations. When discussing learning theories, it is important to look at what learning is. Learning according to Woodworth (1945) ‘is the process by which an individual acquires knowledge, attitudes, and skills that are necessary to meet the demands of life’ [Internet Source 1]. Learning can be affected by a range of factors, including the learner itself, learning experiences and material resources. Explanations of what happens when learning takes place constitute learning theories and the two main values of learning theories Hill (2002:190 cited in Schunk 2012) are that they provide vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning we observe and that they suggest where to look for possible solutions. When discussing learning theories, the three main areas are; behaviourist, cognitivist and constructivist. I am going to examine the learning theories of Piaget, Maslow, and Gardner, defining, and then contrasting them with each other. I will look at practical examples of how each theory can be applied in classroom situations.
To begin with, Abraham Maslow had a theory that focused on the Hierarchy of needs, of which was first published in Maslow’s ‘A theory of human motivation’. This theory stated that ‘people satisfy various personal needs in the context of their work’ and that there is a ‘general pattern of needs recognition and satisfaction that people follow in generally the same sequence’ Gawel (1997). This statement emphasises that an individual’s response is dominated by whatever need has priority at that given moment. This is otherwise known as ‘states of contentedness’. Maslow furthered this theory by stating that needs can be separated into Higher or lower needs. Maslow’s theory suggests that there are five sets of goals, or basic needs, which are related to each other and arranged in a hierarchy, Maslow (1943). These are physiological, security, social, esteem and self-actualisation needs (Cherry 2014). When the most desired goal is realised, the next higher need will emerge. Before people can meet their full potential, these basic needs need to be satisfied. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs can provide teachers with a reminder and framework that our students are less likely to perform at their full potential if their basic needs are not met [Internet Source 2]. Within a classroom, a teacher can guarantee that their pupils will reach their full potential by ensuring that they meet the student at their current level on the hierarchy of needs.
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As a teacher, it is important to ask which pupils aren’t getting their physiological needs met, who aren’t getting the basic needs such as food, water, and sleep. It is also important for the teacher to realise if a student is at the stage of self-actualisation, where they can reach their full potential. Through Maslow’s theory, there are many ways it can be applied practically in a classroom. Some practical examples on how to support a student’s physiological needs in a classroom could include ensuring that they always have access to water and nutritional snacks are available, such as foods with slow burning complex carbs to keep the pupils energised throughout the day. Also, allowing the allocation of short naps- as sleep-deprived students are proven to learn less. To meet the safety and security needs through the creation of a welcoming classroom climate. An anti-bullying system should be in place and there should be consequences for misbehaviour. The social needs of a student are their requirement of feeling loved and like they belong. Actively getting to know the pupils and selecting appropriate seating/groups will reinforce this. A student’s esteem can be supported by ‘providing affirmative, concrete and transparent feedback’ [Internet Source 3] to reassure students of their strengths and successfulness, this could be achieved through positive peer assessment. These practical steps should help students reach their full potential through the self-actualisation stage, this is the ‘growth needs’ stage of development that stems from a desire to grow as a person Cherry (2014).
The next theory is that of Howard Gardner’s theory on Multiple Intelligences, which was first published in his book ‘Frame of mind’ in 1983. The ‘MI theory is perhaps more accurately described as a philosophy of education or an attitude toward learning’ (Armstrong, 1994). Gardner stated that individuals have a unique blend of intelligence, nine of them to be exact (Appendix 1). These intelligences were developed through Gardner’s early work in psychology and later in human cognition and human potential. A remarkable feature of this theory is that it indicated nine different pathways to learning. Gardner argued that the initial idea of intelligence based on I.Q was limited, and this is encouraged the development of these intelligences. These intelligences were to account for a ‘broader range of human potential in both children and adults’ according to Armstrong (2010). Gardner’s theory suggests that equal amounts of attention should be placed on each of the intelligences, instead of focussing on the linguistic/logical-mathematical intelligences, as our schools and society tend to do. In a classroom, a teacher should present their lessons in a range of different ways in order to accommodate these different intelligences. This can only be possible through proper training.
Gardner’s theory has many uses in the classroom and has been adopted by many educators on how to understand and teach the different aspects of human intelligence and so there are many practical examples of how this theory can be applied to classroom situations. Gardner believed that there isn’t a ‘single road to an implementation of MI ideas in the classroom’ Gardner (2009) [cited in Armstrong (2009)]. An example of one way the MI theory can be applied in the classroom is that of continually shifting your style of teaching during a lesson, from linguistic, to musical and then to spatial, Stanford (2003). This is combining the different intelligences in creative ways to meet the demands of the different pupils. To support a musically inclined student the use of rhythms or raps during the presentation of their work would work. The use of visual aids to reach those who are more spatially orientated is another example. A pupil with a verbal-linguistic intelligence would like the use of peer assessment and to be allowed to make an oral presentation, while a teacher could insert investigations/puzzles in their lessons to address a more logically minded student. Other practical ways to implement this theory in a classroom would be active learning techniques that allow pupils to handle different objects and demonstrate how they feel through their body language. If instructors shift their intelligence emphasis from presentation to presentation, there will always be time during a day when a student’s most highly developed intelligence is actively involved in learning, Stanford (2003).
The last theory is that of cognitive development from Jean Piaget, who was one of the most influential cognitive theorists. Piaget argued that people construct knowledge based on four things; experiences, emotion, biological and mental state of development. Piaget (1964) states that ‘development is a process which concerns the totality of the structures of knowledge’ and that ‘development explains learning’. Piaget’s theory is made up of three components; firstly, the schemas which are the building blocks of knowledge, Wadsworth (1996) argued that schema ‘be thought of as 'index cards' filed in the brain, each one telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or information’. Secondly, there was the idea of assimilation and accommodation, which are the adaptation processes that allow for the transition from one stage to the next. The final component was the stages of cognitive development, which Piaget identified as: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational Ojose (2008). The sensorimotor stage is the learning through touch and feel, which happens from birth to age 2. The preoperational stage happens between 2-7 years and is when children can think symbolically. The concrete operational stage is considered by Piaget as being a turning point in development and happens through years 7-11. This marks the beginning of logical thinking. The formal operational stage begins at age 11 and this is when people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.
Piaget’s theory has been considered by many in the field of education as it can be applied practically to classroom situations. Piaget’s theory states that within the classroom, learning should be active discovery learning and student centred. Learning should take place in groups to allow children to collaborate and learn from each other, and tasks should only be set at a suitable stage of the child’s development. Creating new opportunities for students to make their own discoveries will assist in their cognitive development. An example of ensuring cognitive development would be the use of different techniques to express thoughts and emotions, students could create their own plays about a given topic and act them out.
Each of the theories offers ways in which the teacher can deliver their lessons, be it in multiple different ways. Maslow’s theory contrasts with the other theories as it states that without the fulfilment of a specific basic need, full potential cannot be realised. Piaget and Maslow are similar on the idea of a development and stepping stone between needs and stages while Gardner refers to the different ways of learning. Gardner states that people can experience many intelligences at once. Piaget’s theory contrasts with Maslow’s as it states that biology plays a key part in the development of children. It is also solely focused on the development of children, unlike the other theories. A similarity between Piaget and Gardner’s is seen through Gardner’s intelligence of bodily-kinaesthetic. Piaget stresses the importance of active learning which is what this intelligence stands for. Piaget is different from all the rest in that he only focuses on the development and makes no reference to learning.
To conclude, through the examining and contrasting the theories above we have been able to see their relevance to education today, each with something different to offer. Their application in the classroom environment is essential for a successful lesson, be it from the perspective of multiple intelligences, the idea of cognitive development or the hierarchy of needs. Each of the theories, when applied, will give the educators an advantage on how to improve pupil learning.
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