Motivation In Second Language Learning: A Historical Overview

Abstract

The concept of motivation always regarded in human societies particularly for scholars and educational experts. In recent decades, there has been a remarkable growth of interest in the concept of motivation, many theorists and researchers in Educational Psychology have been put theories and particular role for motivational and psychological patterns on educational behaviours. In this paper, we review the theoretical perspectives that have been submitted over the past 4 decades and associated with language acquisition, this review also covers the important results of relevant and recent research studies on motivation.

Introduction

There is an agreement through the researchers that the motivation has been paying a key role leads to success or failure of a language learner to master second language. Motivation which been defined by Oxford Dictionary as the “desire or willing to do something “(Motivation, 2014) . In addition, (Hamid, 2011) has defined the motivation as (Powering people to achieve high levels of performance and overcoming barriers in order to change .” Moreover, Motivation is usually associated with commitment, interest, and persistence to achieve goals . So, all educators know that the motivation is a vital element in learning, and teacher language commonly uses this term when they describe successful or unsuccessful learners .

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There are many benefits for knowing other languages, but they are not absolutely necessary, and as a consequence, motivation (as well as ability) can play an important role in learning a second language (R.C. Gardner, 1994) Therefore, teachers and tutors play a relevant role in this process as they should know how to motivate their students This research paper submitted to discuss the theoretical L2 motivation principles in the field of second language learning over the past 40 years by reporting the key findings of relevant and recent research studies on motivation.

L2 Motivation: Historical Evolution

Dörnyei reports that there are three distinct phases in the history of motivation in teaching and learning the foreign language (as quoted in Dörnyei & Ushioda 2011). The following are: (1) The social psychological period, (2) the cognitive-situated period, and (3) the process-oriented period.

The Social Psychological Period (1959–1990)

This period has been related to the work of Robert Gardner in a bilingual context with his associated in Canada. According to Gardner (2010), motivation to learn 2L is not a simple construct and cannot be easily defined, however, he states that a motivated person is someone who sets a goal and perseveres to achieve it. Motivation is also the result of an interaction.

It really is not possible to give a simple definition of motivation, though one can list many characteristics of the motivated individual. Although many researches have criticized Gardener’s work, his theories have evidently served as the foundation and starting point for the others to encourage them to understand motivation in the second language by proposing most of the theories in second language motivation . In general, the focus in the social psychological period was on the importance of attitudes and feelings of language learners towards the L2 communities and the second language itself

The Cognitive-Situated Period (1990’s)

The cognitive-situated period designed to return the focus of research to the psychological area, which primarily studies cognition (or mental operations). This period mainly emphasized on the classroom situation. It considered the learning context and the need for students and teachers in the classroom more important than the community and the social context. The idea was not to ignore the social and psychological results, but to enlarge the earlier theories, taking account of other cognitive perspectives.

Dörnyei (1994) in his research and based on the literature review also contributed to this period, he has proposed motivation framework on three different levels including the Language Level, the Learner Level, and the Learning Situation Level. Language level: it takes into account the language and the community as well as the instrumental and integrative motivational theory proposed by Gardner. Learner level: discuses about the personal characteristics and cognitive process. Learning situation level: it focuses on three main factors (teacher, course, group).. Moreover, during this period Crookes and Schmidt examined three distinct motivation theories. They consisted of (1) theory of accommodation of speech, (2) theory of acculturation, and (3) model of monitoring. In their research, these two authors used motivation determinants from Keller –interest, significance, expectation and results– to comprehend motivation in more particular situations, such as the classroom and the curriculum (MacIntyre, 2002).

During this period it becomes more apparent that the second language motivation is being transitioned from a general to a more particular conception.

The Process-Oriented Period

This period has three significant perspectives on the motivation of L2. we will first clarify the work of William and Burden (1997), Ushida (1994, 1996, 1998), and Dörnyei and Otto (1998), which considered as a starting point for process-oriented period approaches to L2 motivation.

• a. Williams and Burden (as quoted in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011) suggested two important terms (1) Motivation for engagement: choices, reasons, wishes, and Motivation during engagement: (how one feels, acts and reacts during the learning process).
• b. Ushida (as quoted in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011), in his theory he concentrated on the learner's experience. (Positive L2 experiences in the past, relevant experiences to their learning process), and the motivation for the future objectives of the learners.
• c. . Dörnyei and Otto’s theories (as quoted in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011) considered the most developed ones that attempted to model the process dimension. Dörnyei and Otto divided the motivation behavioral process into three main phases: (1) Pre-actional phase: pre-action motivational forces (e.g, selecting goals or tasks to be pursued) (1998; see also Dörnyei, 2000, 2001a). (2) Actional phase: (e.g, enrolling in a language course) (3) Post-actional phase: (e.g, Self-concept beliefs and internal feedback and grades of performance).

Undoubtedly, this period shed light on learners and their specific learning context in L2 motivational research. The proponents of this view, William and Burden, for example, regarded the learning process before and during the engagement in the classroom setting as an experience. This is further supported by Dörnyei and Otto (as quoted in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011) when they suggested that motivation should be investigated from a variety of perspectives at the private level of the learner. As a result, this will lead to the start of the new and most recent stage of L2 motivational studies (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011).

Recent L2 Motivation theories

Generally known as the socio-dynamic period. As its name indicates, this period focuses on the constant change and the interaction of the learner. In this section we will briefly outline the critical factors that are shaping this transition. Three new approaches proposed by (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, 78) during this period are:

• a) A person-in-context: It focuses attention on the dynamic system of the learner, which are complex, unpredictable, non-linear and always unique since every person and context are unique. A learner is not seen as a cause-effect, but rather as a cause-effect dynamic person. It focuses on an individual's agency as a person who thinks, feels a person, has an identity, a character, a distinctive history or background, a person with purposes, motives and intentions (Ushioda 2009: 220).
• b) The 2L motivational self: proposed by Dörnyei (as cited in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011); this approach was made up of three different components: (1) ideal L2 self: (when the individual wants to speak 2L, 'ideal L2 self' plays a powerful role in motivating him/her to learn. (2) Ought to L2 self: deals with the traits that one should possess to meet expectation and to avoid possible negatives findings. (3) L2 learning experience: related to the surrounding learning environment and experience (e.g: the influence of the teacher, syllabus, peer group or experience of success). (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p. 86).
• c) Complex dynamic system: This approach is well illustrated with the double pendulum movement as it takes into account two or even more components. A complex system can be considered as a dynamic if it contains two or more components that are (a) interconnected with each other and (b) that also change in time. Theses constant interferences make the behaviour of the system extremely complicated and unpredictable. Dörnyei (as cited in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011) suggested the individual differences (ID) of the learner could always be a task to comprehend and generalize about as each individual has a unique combination of private, emotional, and behavioural traits.

Eventually, Dörnyei (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009, 2011) claims that it is possible to consider motivation, cognition and influence in understanding L2 motivation as three wide perspectives focused on human behaviour. This suggestion is related to the socio-dynamic approach since none of these three approaches can be treated individually or statically.

In this period, there has been a growing move away from the linear, predictable approaches towards a dynamic integrated view of motivation, self and context. It is clear that a linear approach cannot capture the dynamic and mutually constitutive nature of the relationship between motivation and context. Context is considered not a static term but a developing process which individuals are involving through their actions and responses.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that over the previous 40 years, L2 motivation has passed through various phases. The theories of Gardner worked as a start point to understand the motivation of L2. From then on, the different periods of motivation have undertaken an evolutionary process in which related theories were reworded to particular learning situations while criticizing other methods. Interestingly, the latest period has raised awareness of the complexity of motivation for L2.This demonstrates that findings are not predictable and more than two components are engaged. Thereby, a single definition of L2 motivation remains hard to agree. In the process of understanding their attitude towards second language learning, there are too many elements and attributes of the individual learner. Eventually, many of the motivational theories of the L2 might not apply to every context. As Guerrero, M. (2015) explained there are other vital aspects should also be taken into account, for instant, social, political, economic and personal aspects.

References

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