A study has demonstrated that self-oriented behavior in the mirror, after being surreptitiously marked on the face, which is representing an explicit index of self-concept, the objectified and identified sense of the embodied self (Amsterdam et al., 1972, as cited in Broesch et al.,2011,p.1018). As a benchmark of self-concept, numerous studies suggest that children reach this milestone by 18-24 months of age (Amsterdam et al., 1972, as cited in Broesch et al.,2011,p.1018) The rationale behind the mark test is that when a child is marked surreptitiously and attempts to touch the mark, as opposed to doing nothing or trying to reach for it on the mirror surface, the specular image stands for the child’s image. Taking self-oriented gestures as the behavioral index of self-recognition, it indicates that the embodied self is the referent of what is seen in the mirror (Rochat,2003, as cited in Broesch et al.,2011,p.1019). Generally, passing the mark test indicates that children recognize their image and that those who fail the test do not. Signs of behavioral inhabitation in terms of freezing behavior stand for the absence of any body movement or vocalization.
In general, the mirror self-recognition test reported a majority of Western children from Canada, and American demonstrated spontaneous self-oriented behaviors while fewer non-Western children from Fiji, Saint Lucia, Grenada, and Peru demonstrated such behaviors. Boesch et al, (2011) indicate that Kenyan participants understood that it was themselves in the mirror. However, they were unsure of an acceptable response and dared not to touch or remove it. It suggests that rather than, expressing a lack of self-concept, their own identity might be about the adults that surround them which implies different parenting styles across cultures (Broesch et al,2011). In small-scale rural areas, young children tend to learn primarily via observation and imitation( Odden, Rochat, 2004, Rogoff, 1995, as cited. In Broesch et al.,2011,p.1027). They show respect for adults and silent obedience in child rearing as opposed to the Western model of learning in which children are encouraged to be active and take participatory roles. As a result, the non-western children showed to have higher compliance and were not willing to touch or remove the mark, assuming that it was surreptitiously placed for them on purpose.
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Furthermore, the variation of cultural values across countries might also affect parenting style. Chen et al.(1998) investigated child-rearing attitudes and behavioral inhibition and found that there were higher levels level of behavioral inhibition in children from Asia compared to those from Western countries. It suggested that child-rearing beliefs and practices are important factors that may mediate cultural influences on child development. (Super & Hark-ness,1986; Whiting & Edwards,1998, as cited in Chen et al., 1998). Parental behaviors and beliefs were guided by cultural norms and values. The research examined the relationship between child inhibition and child-rearing attitudes based on maternal acceptance, encouragement of achievement, and encouragement of independence, and between maternal rejection and punishment orientation (Chen et al,1998).
Taken together, the existing research suggests that the relation between self-oriented behavior is due to differences in parenting styles and cultural values across countries. To date, however, researchers have yet to directly investigate the reason why non-Western children fail the mirror mark test and how the self-concept develops across cultures. The reason why non-western child responds with inhibition by freezing is that they may be expressing social compliance rather than lack of self-recognition (Broesch et al,2011). Also, aging is a factor that can explain the reason why non-western child fails the test. The self-concept develops across cultures by the differences in parenting styles.
The aim of this study, therefore, was to investigate whether non-Western children would pass the mirror self-recognition test at a similar age to Western children if they were encouraged and permitted by their parents to touch the sticker. In particular, we tested 15,18,21and 24 months age infants and western (American) and non-western (Kenyan) infants. They were tested with a mirror mark test with verbal prompting to ‘’get it’’ when the child placed it in front of the mirror. (Nielsen, Suddendorf, & Slaughter, 2006, as cited in Broesch et al., 2011, p. 1022). In addition, we observed the different child-rearing attitudes between two cultures and the effect of different ages on self-recognition performance. The passing or failing on the mirror mark test measures self-oriented behavior like touching or removing the sticker.
Based on the previous studies on children’s self-recognition performance in the MSR test, we predicted that both western (American) and non-western (Kenya) children at 15 months of age will fail the test. However, for children at the age of 24 months or above, we predicted that the self-oriented behavior is related to the children’s parent-rearing attitude and culture, and by giving verbal prompting/ permission, the majority of the children will pass the test regardless of their cultural background.
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