Abstract
This paper explores the relationship between the development of human languages around the world and the distinct environmental phenomena the speakers of a particular language are encountered with. By examining six journal articles and one media interview with a prominent researcher in the area of study, I have determined that there is a significant amount of evidence that supports the idea that language is adaptive to the world around it and that this research is only scratching the surface on the adaptability of the human brain to distinct environmental circumstances.
Of the more than 7,000 human languages found throughout the globe, each one is spoken by people who encounter distinct external and interactive phenomenal input. I argue that, in conflict with established theories on the inception of distinct languages, environment, both stagnant and dynamic in its nature, has an appreciable influence on the genesis and development of language, and that language is adaptive to shifting ecological variables, stressing the need for further research into the connections between language, cognition, and our natural world.
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The geographic position of a population of language speakers correlates to the distinct environment they encounter. As Everett, Blasi, and Roberts (2016) point out, like with other animal species, the phenotypic and genotypic intra-species variation in humans is a result in large part because of the climate and other environmental factors. “Cross-population variations in size, surface area-to-volume ratio, pigmentation, and the like, present advantages associated with particular ecological constraints” (Everett et al. 2016). It is also observed that hemoglobin levels are found to be at greater levels at higher altitudes, such as the peoples of the Himalayan mountains (Everett et al. 2016). So then it is reasonable to ask the question; do these factors, population density as a result of inhabitable land size, hemoglobin levels and the other traits and genotypic variations found across humanity inform how we communicate through our distinct languages? Thanks to the hard work and research of linguists, anthropologists, sociologists and biologists, we can take encouragement in the fact that that question is a worthwhile pursuit.
Linguistic Evolutionary Gap
As Greenhill (2016) declares, despite the great efforts of those in the linguistics community to identify the catalysts for evolution of language, from sociology, to expedition purposes, little attention has been paid to the role that environment plays in the shaping of language.
“This omission is surprising as there do appear to be strong effects of environment on the distribution of languages themselves, with more languages in more ecologically rich regions and toward the equator, and a tendency for languages to ‘fill’ an environmental niche like an island. This omission is probably due to a number of reasons—discussed in our commentaries—ranging from an (understandable) hang-up from early racist theories of language, to fears of environmental determinism, to concerns that this locus of action is too far removed from the language speakers themselves.” (Greenhill 2016)
Language, in the eyes of the standard theoretical view, is not a property which adapts to the environment it encounters (Greenhill 2016). Indeed, Everett et al. (2016) reiterate the common view that “in fact, language is presumed to be ecologically autonomous by most language researchers…”, a holding that is backed up by presumptions rather than well mined research data, meaning that the proscription of an “eco-linguistic” connection does not have a bearing in actual evidence, so there is room for plenty of continued research in the field.
Evidence of Influence
A significant piece of materializing this research is determining the factors which should be examined when related to the development and evolution of language. In an interview with Voices of America (2013), Caleb Everett, a linguistic anthropologist who teaches at the University of Miami, expresses his initial encounters with the idea that language is shaped by environment.
“'I was sitting here at my desk,' said Everett, 'and I looked at the data, and I thought, 'Okay, it sort of works for North America, it works for South America - wow, it really works in Africa, and it works in Eurasia ... There's really nowhere that it doesn't work!''” (Voices of America 2013)
According to Everett (2013), of the geographic variables that could potentially have determinism over language development, elevation is the one that research should be focusing in significant part on. The basis behind this is that “that atmospheric pressure might impact the production of non-pulmonic sounds, which do not rely on air egressed from below the larynx.” (Everett 2013). The result, Everett (2013) believes, is that people encountering such atmospheric pressures might also utilize ejective consonants at a higher rate, which are sounds created by the the non-aspiration or aspiration of typical consonantal phonemes. An on the fly example of this, simply put, would be to have the reader hold their breath, then make the “K” sound, without expelling any breath. Anatomically speaking, these noises are made because of a “compression of air in the pharyngeal cavity”, which Everett (2013) posits as being a more achievable action for human language speakers at high elevations due to the low atmospheric pressure. In the study, languages using ejectives in their verbal communication across the globe were studied, found at longitudes and latitudes indiscriminate.
There is a distinct clustering of ejective laden languages found at or within the vicinity of a major point or points of elevation. Everett (2013) found that “Remarkably, 57 of 92 (62%) languages with ejectives are located in high elevation ‘zones’” and additionally “...80 of 92 (87%) languages with ejectives are located within 500 km of a region exceeding 1500 m.”. This data, while not conclusive, leads one to believe that there is a potential surface connection between the atmospheric pressure found at areas of high elevation and the method of utterance of ejective consonants, meaning that the probability of other environmental factors having an impact on human language is more likely than previously believed.
Recognizing that evolutionary biological study often links species variation and diversification to the properties of “neutral drift” meaning that evolved traits and genes are the result of somewhat aimless movement, a random internal process. Bentz, Dediu, Verkerk and Jäger (2018) propose, in the Nature: Human Behavior journal, that other factors, “beyond neutral drift”, promote variable language diversification. Chief among these factors “...include latitude, altitude and rugosity, temperature and rainfall, political complexity, and subsistence strategy, as well as island size in the Pacific” (Bentz et al. 2018) In order to do this, the researchers tested three hypotheses; One, that linguistic “internal” processes and what they call “external environmental factors” evolve separate from each other, another, that these two phenomena are linked and thus adaptive to each other, and lastly, that neutral drift in linguistic evolution much like biological evolution is shaping the diversification of language. To do this, the researchers examined the “phylogenetic signals” of language families across the globe. Phylogenetic signals are traits of variation which according to a paper in the British Ecological Society, can be observed by ecologists and evolutionary biologists, especially in order to compare and contrast among species, and have gained in methodological popularity in recent years. (Münkemüller, Lavergne, Bzeznik, Dray, Schiffers and Thuiller 2012)
By examining the phylogenetic trees of human language, the researchers from the Nature: Human Behavior Journal came to the conclusion that one can reasonably assume a that language “…generally reflects environmental factors associated with particular language communities.” According to them the evidence they mined “…supports recent claims that pure drift falls short of explaining a considerable proportion of language diversity.” In addition to various other external factors that might elicit adaptive responses from language, a proper understanding of language and its diversification cannot be reached unless we account for the physical properties language speakers encounter, again acknowledging the necessity for more work in this area of study.
Non-verbal and non-human language
Though we often think of language and as only a verbal and auditory action, there have been studies in recent years on the differences between verbal and non-verbal communication. According to Christensen, Fusaroli and Tylen (2016), who conducted such research, “Recent gesture elicitation studies have indicated that constituent order...may be heavily influenced by human cognitive biases constraining gesture production and transmission.” Constituent order is the manner in which subject, verb and object are presented within a sentence, which these researchers recognized as a key into human cognition. Positing an “alternative hypothesis”, that the constituent order within syntax is also “motivated by multiple environmental and social–interactional constraints” (Christensen et al. 2016). While not explicitly examining ecological factors, this research provides evidence to the makeshift theory that linguistic structure hinges at least in part on external factors.
Resulting from 3 experiments, the researchers believed that the discovered a significant basis for the idea that language and its structure is significantly dependent on the environment it is accustomed to. As reported by Christensen et al. (2016), their study yielded “experimental evidence suggesting that various environmental and communicative factors are effective sources of motivation for linguistic structure.”
Beyond human language there are other animal forms of communications that can give us a look into how we converse and express ourselves according to the environment we find ourselves within. There are many examples that animal signals are, according to Everett et al. (2016), highly adaptive to be recognized and observed by others. For instance, expressive creatures inhabiting dense rainforests are confronted with physical obstacles, such as reverberation, to promoting a message, trees, foliage, a high concentration of verbally emitting beings:
“Several animal species, including birds, anurans (frogs and toads), spiders, and some mammals, adapt their signals by adjusting their frequencies and their duration in order to overcome these obstacles.” (Everett et al. 2016)
In another example, it is known that the messages created by insects which are chemically manufactured fade over time. (Everett et al. 2016) However, some insects that inhabit warm humid climates exhibit signaling that can last through the heat and won't evaporate as quickly (Everett et al. 2016). These particular findings express that “Given the ubiquity of ecological adaptation in animal communication alone, its potential existence in human communication merits serious inquiry.” (Everett et al. 2016).
The work of Everett et al. (2016) also examines impacts that were previously observed to have an impact on language, albeit indirectly. The researchers observed that climate naturally impacts the rate of production within an environment, as well as disease, which therefore impacts rates of mortality and life expectancy. They posit that as a result of changes in climate over time, humans have undergone physiological evolutions, such as the “higher and narrower cavities that increase the contact between inspired air and nasal walls, helping to humidify inhaled air” found in populations inhabiting colder and drier climates (Everett et al. 2016). This, I believe is the crux of the study of the environmental impact on language, that our planet is changing in this moment, and so language therefore might be too.
Importance of Research
Language is one of the primary qualities that distinguishes human beings from other sentient creatures. Our modes of communication bridge cultural, political, conceptual gaps between humans. The endeavor to examine language and its response and adaptation to its external pressures is crucial to understanding who we are as humans. As we witness entire populations of people encountering the effects of climate change on their habitats, the fluidity and adaptive nature of language is and will continue to be on full display. This type of research matters because language and culture are intertwined within each other, and in my mind, it is impossible to understand one without the other. We are environmentally adaptive beings, from variation in pigmentation, to heightened levels of hemoglobin dependent on elevation, our biology evolves to acclimate to the environment we are encountered with, and it is natural to assume that our cognition, also shaped by biology is similarly tied to environmental phenomena and with it, language.
Despite the general proscription within the linguistics field of a recognition of language’s ability to adapt to its surroundings, the research supporting such out right denial is few and far between. As Everett et al. (2016) put it, “In fact, it is arguably an empirically impoverished position…” because it has not even engaged the query with any legitimate vigor.
Conclusion
We all know that the environments we live in impact our day; we don’t live in bubbles, and even if we did, the proverbial bubble is still an environment. As humans, we have an acute awareness and knowledge of the word around us that is only transmissible through the languages we speak. The research as laid out in the above sections provides us with suggestive evidence that we are even more in tune with the natural world than we think. Because of the source materials that have been accumulated by researchers in recent years, we now have a better understanding on the influence of environmental factors such as longitude, latitude, island size, humidity or aridity, and altitude to name a few, and the possibilities for further research within the field are practically endless. We should continue to examine the methods of human communication and how they are informed by the environment those humans inhabit, just as we pay close attention to the evolution of communication among non-human animals.
References
- Bentz, C., Dediu, D., Verkerk, A., & Jäger, G. (2018). The evolution of language families is shaped by the environment beyond neutral drift. Nature human behaviour,2(11), 816-821. doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0457-6
- Christensen, P., Fusaroli, R., & Tylén, K. (2016). Environmental constraints shaping constituent order in emerging communication systems: structural iconicity, interactive alignment and conventionalization. Cognition, 146, 67-80. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2015.09.004
- Environment may affect development of language. (2013, July 18). Retrieved from https://www.voanews.com/silicon-valley-technology/environment-may-affect-development-language
- Everett, C., Blasí, D. E., & Roberts, S. G. (2016). Language evolution and climate: the case of desiccation and tone. Journal of Language Evolution, 1(1), 33-46. doi:10.1093/jole/lzv004
- Everett, C. (2013). Evidence for Direct geographic influences on linguistic sounds: the case of ejectives. PLoS ONE,8(6). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065275
- Greenhill, S. J. (2016). Overview: Debating the effect of environment on language. Journal of Language Evolution, 1(1), 30-32. doi:10.1093/jole/lzv007
- Münkemüller, T., Lavergne, S., Bzeznik, B., Dray, S., Jombart, T., Schiffers, K., & Thuiller, W. (2012). How to measure and test phylogenetic signal. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 3(4), 743-756. doi:10.1111/j.2041-210x.2012.00196.x
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