Taxation within the Estates System in French Revolution Essay

The name of the Paris metro is a reflection of French history and how leaders (Kings, emperors), Scientists during the Enlightenment, writers, revolutionaries, heroes, and other events impacted France's representation. This essay highlights certain heroes of France and analyses the question, how has gender and class inequality evolved from the period of the French Revolution until date?

Social inequalities in the 18th century before and after the French Revolution

Class inequalities before and after the French Revolution

In the 18th century, the country was divided into three estates, the clergy the nobility of the sword, and the nobility of the robe (third estates). The third estates constituted the lower-class population who were exploited, allowed trivial rights, and had less representation in the Estate in general. The constituents of this category paid higher taxes as compared to the clergy. The social inequalities that existed in the 18th century imparted the French Revolution. The gap of class inequalities narrowed in this period after the Declaration of Rights of Men and of the Citizens on the 26th of August 1789 (Chavaroche, 2020). The French Revolution, paved the way for great men to seek public recognition, and clay representation thus statutes, that were previously set aside for monarchs (Dwyer, 2004). According to (Dwyer, 2004) the artistic representation of public figures increased with the defeat of the monarchy amidst the French Revolution of 1792. On the path of the revolution, the lower class population advocated for their rights, and heroes of the revolution were recognized and honored with full-scale statues. In the middle of the 18th century, heroes of the French Revolution had replaced the positions of the monarchs, the French government honored heroes of the revolution through paintings and statues in public squares (Dwyer, 2004).

Gender Inequalities in the Napoleonic Era: evidence from Napoleonic Code(1804)

Also, during the Napoleonic era (1804), gender inequalities became apparent, men were given recognition whilst women were recognized as minors. Women did not exist before the law in France(Eichner, 2003). The rights of women were subject to definition by spouses. The Napoleonic code suppressed the rights of women, in terms of property, marriage, and divorce.

The Napoleonic Code denied women of political rights, economic rights in terms of owning a business. Women had more difficulty in obtaining divorce than their husbands, they were considered inferior to men. Mick, for example, addressed the unfairness of the Napoleonic Code (Eichner, 2003)The men, on the other hand, reserved political rights, the authority of the family, protection of the wife and own property. They were regarded as strong and intelligent. In Napoleon’s view women, the basic duty of a woman is to be a wife a mother, and work at home. Class inequality had been narrowed during Napoleon's reign. In contrast to the period of the French Revolution, Napoleon’s tax system applied equally to all regardless of class (Horne,n.d). women were still sidelined, widening the gap of gender inequalities in the first part of the 19th century. The code lasted for a long period. Women had the right to own businesses and property in the 20th Century (Reese, n.d.).

Advocates for gender equality: women’s rights in the 18th century

Several Activists have made efforts to address the existence of Gender Inequality in the French system. The activists include both males and females. Some of these activists lost their lives as a result of advocating for women's rights and addressing gender inequality.

• Olympe De Gorges(1791)

Olympe de Gorges was a French advocate for Women's Rights and activist who made an effort to reveal the gender inequalities during the French Revolution. She wrote the “Declaration of Rights of Women and of a Citizen” in 1791 to assert the rights of women after the French Revolution(Lewis,2019). The right of women to divorce and also vote was as a result of her influence, the right was granted to women in 1972(heroes). Women were denied the right to vote because of their absence in Military service(Darrow, 1996). Olympe De Gorge was killed for voicing out the suppression of female rights. (Lewis,2019). The killing of Olympe de Gorges demonstrates how Leaders of the 18th century disregarded the rights of women.

• Louis Michel(Paris communard)

Louis Michel is one of the French women commemorated in the Paris metro. She was known as the 'Red Virgin of Montmartre', she advocated class war refuting the reforms of parliament. Louis was a supporter of the Paris Commune, she fought with a National Guard to defend the commune during in 1871 amidst the German Siege of Paris ('Louise Michel', 2020). To advocate for decentralization and socialism she established the Montmartre Vigilance Committee which other female activists joined(Eichner, 2003). The legacy of Louis Michel “serves as a reference to all revolutionary ideologies from the 19th century until date” ('Louise Michel”,2020). She posited for social justice in the France system addressing class inequalities, the rights of women to divorce, and domestic labour. Louis was the famed iconoclast who laid the foundation for other feminists to follow up on her legacies(Eichner, 2003). Women supporters of the Paris commune were perceived to be barbaric (Chavaroche, 2020). Following how women supporters and communards of the commune were viewed as “barbaric and unnatural” reveals the dominance of gender inequalities

• Paule Mink and Andre Leo(19th Century)

Paule Mink and Andre Leo were feminists in the 19th century who sought to introduce socialist programs to address class and gender inequality. They inculcated feminist issues into socialism. The 19th-century feminist Activism began with women in the bourgeois class, Paule and Mink were female revolutionaries of this class. These female activists were supporters of the Paris commune, “a civil war against the national government”. Paule and Leo utilized the opportunity during the Paris commune to seek women’s rights and economic and social change. Leo urged for the rights and liberty of Women from the oppressiveness of the Church. To Mink, the church enforced inequality, in the sense that it denied women the right to divorce defending this as an act of protection. They proposed that the socialist revolution be an emancipation of women from the oppression of the church.

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Moreover, gender inequalities still prevailed during the 19th century, and the marginalization and isolation of women from socialist programs is an indication of inequity.” The International” failed to acknowledge gender equality, they excluded females from participation. The group regarded the role of women as subject to domestic duties. In Minnie's fight for justice for women, she renewed the International and incorporated women by proposing a claim that the success of the program is indirectly dependent on the inclusion of women. Subsequently, Leo resorted to pursuing feminist motives through intellectual writing whilst Mink solicited violence for social and economic change in the commune (Eichner, 2003). Evidence from Paule and Minks's activism period proves that gender inequalities still existed in the period of the Paris Commune, the church was also a body that overlooked gender equity. These two female activists to an extent shaped the thoughts of individuals who perceived women as weak and imparted French history. By the third republic, teachers' training colleges were established in all French departments concerning the “first great laic educational law”(Jansen & Roy, n.d.). In this period women were allowed the opportunity to attend training colleges, and the traditional mentality of women as the weak and should commit to working at home as a wife and mother began to diminish.

• Jules Ferry (The Third Republic)

Jules Ferry Minister of Education of France during the third republic made changes in the France Education System. He contended that the church preserved power through women,

claiming “that women must belong to science and not to the church”(Jansen & Roy, n.d.). The church exerted maintained influence in schools, which was demolished by Julius Ferry. He established free education for both girls and boys and secular education, an advocate for laicite. Laicite is“the French version of secularism, which posits on the strict separation of church and the state”(Jansen & Roy, n.d.). Jules Ferry made education mandatory for all people, through the introduction of a free “non-clerical” education system. Within the period of the Third Republic, gender equity became more apparent in contrast to the period of the French Revolution.

Following the activists and the great works of these individuals who strove to narrow the gap of gender inequalities in the French System, women have had the opportunity to participate in science. Previously women were denied the right to education, Jules ferry advocated for the participation of women in science. (Jansen & Roy, n.d.) Marie Curie is one of the female scientists who imparted France's History.

Women in Science and World War 19th Century (Marie Curie)

Marie Curie was an intelligent female scientist in the 19th century. Due to the discrimination against females in education in the 18th century, she was denied the right to pursue higher education. Marie Curie is a depiction of an ambitious woman, despite the discrimination against women she strove to achieve her goals. She introduced the term “Radioactivity”. Inequalities still prevailed during this age; male scientists were nominated for science prizes with the exclusion of women. Marie Curie, for example, was excluded from the nominations in 1903 for the Nobel Prize in Physics. Pierre Curie, husband of Marie revealed the discrimination against his wife and opted for her nomination. Marie Curie became the first lady to win two Nobel Prizes and the first woman to teach at Paris University. (Ghose,2020). Curie has laid the foundation for the involvement of women in Science. According to (Chris,2011), Marie sets an example to encourage women to pursue goals regardless of discrimination. Marie Curie not only left a legacy in science but also contributed to saving the lives of soldiers during the First World War in 1914, her efforts are not recognized. ( Chavaroche,2020).

Women in the period of the First World War played important roles that have not been recognized. Marie Currie, for example, saved the lives of soldiers on the battlefield during World War 1 but her legacy in French history highlights her contribution to science.

Several French women contributed to the world war. Women petitioned to support soldiers during the War by volunteering to be nurses. The French Red Cross posited for the women's service during wartime. They were present on the battlefield with soldiers rather in the 'Home Front'. Their duty was to take of wounded soldiers on the battlefield since they could not fight. Nursing was the only way women could serve France. The statute of 1913 restricted women to serve hospitals in the home front and not the War front. Nursing was perceived to be the sole means by which one could participate in wars. However, the charity, volunteer nursing, and other efforts made by the home front women have been excluded from the wartime historical experience. The contributions patriotic women made amidst World War 1 were forgotten (Eichner, 2003). Examining the contribution made by women, although women were allowed to indirectly participate during the War, the efforts of the soldiers and heroes overshadow the contributions women nurses made to save lives in World War 1. Gender inequality still prevailed in this period in the sense that, French history failed to acknowledge the service of women during World War 1. According to (Eichner, 2003) “the confirmed essence of the war is masculinity”.

In conclusion, the problem of inequalities has evolved from the period of the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Era, The Third Republic, and the First World War. Some heroes are committed to addressing class and gender inequalities. The class and gender inequality gap narrowed with the influence of heroes such as Louise Michel who strove for social change and Olympe de Gouges respectively. Paul Mink and Andre Leo feminist activists continued the legacies of Louise. These heroes, although some have been forgotten, have impacted the representation of France in terms of inequalities.

References

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2. Darrow, M. H. (1996). French Volunteer Nursing and the Myth of War Experience in World War I. The American Historical Review, 101(1), 80. https://doi.org/10.2307/2169224
3. Dwyer, P. G. (2004). Napoleon Bonaparte as hero and savior: Image, rhetoric, and behavior in the construction of a legend. French History, 18(4), 379–403. https://doi.org/10.1093/fh/18.4.379
4. Eichner, C. J. (2003). “Vive la Commune!” Feminism, socialism, and revolutionary revival in the aftermath of the 1871 Paris Commune. Journal of Women’s History, 15(2), 68–98. https://doi.org/10.1353/jowh.2003.0049
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9. Lewis, J. (2019). Biography of Olympe de Gouges, French Women's Rights Activist. Retrieved 30 April 2020, from https://www.thoughtco.com/olympe-de-gouges-rights-of-woman-3529894
10. Louise Michel. (2020). Retrieved 30 April 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/LouisMichel
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