Abstract
Transgender individuals are disproportionately affected by psychological distress, resulting in a prevalence of depression, anxiety, suicide, and substance use within this population. Research consistently shows that resilience among this community correlates to lower levels of distress, however its moderating effect has yet to be confirmed. Literature compiled from the search terms transgender and resilience yielded 14 relevant peer-reviewed articles including one book, one literature review, three qualitative articles and nine quantitative articles. Preliminary findings indicate numerous factors of resilience, the most pivotal being social support and age. Youth are the most at-risk for psychological distress and suicide, thus it is imperative that early-intervention to promote resilience is implemented through increased peer and familial support.
Introduction
The socioemotional well-being of English Language Learner’s (ELL’s) requires careful consideration, as it is only when such needs have been addressed that an optimal state for learning can be established.
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Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors
Negative internalizing and externalizing behaviors exhibited by ELL’s have been correlated to lower academic achievement and specifically slower and increasingly labored second language acquisition (Gottfried, Le, & Datar, 2016; Niehaus & Adelson, 2014; Vera et al., 2018; Waxman, Rivera, & Powers 2012; Winsler, Kim, & Richard, 2014). ELL students that keep social or emotionally impactful events to themselves, such as being bullied for their accent or shame for not understanding the lesson, often experience a profound sense of isolation which inhibits their participation in classroom language instruction (Vera et al., 2018, Winsler, Kim, & Richard, 2014). When a student exhibits externalizing behaviors such as impulsivity, disturbs ongoing activities, or argues, the entire class, and more specifically the ELL student, loses valuable language instructional minutes (Gottfried, Le, & Datar, 2016, Niehaus & Adelson, 2014). An ELL student that is distracted or busy distracting others, is unable to attend to instruction (Waxman, Rivera, & Powers (2012).
All 4 quantitative and 1 mixed-methods studies examined the socioemotional effects on ELL’s language proficiency however, they are not of equal quality or utility for my study purposes. The high-quality mixed-methods study by Vera et al. (2018), permitted an in-depth descriptive account from participants while still providing detailed numerical analysis of variables. The study solely focused on the socioemotional experiences of its participants versus the other studies that examined additional variables. This provided dedicated insight of the specific internalizing behaviors such as, fear and externalizing behaviors such as, impulsiveness and their effects on language acquisition. However, being a retrospective study where the adult participants recount past events, it is possible that memory may be skewed or corrupted. Additionally, a voluntary sample was taken where participants self-selected into a survey. Perhaps, participants with higher socioemotional issues are more prone to responding to such inquiries.
Another study by Winsler, Kim, & Richard (2014), also had a weakness in the sample population; the teachers reporting the data were typically high school graduates. High quality teaching is often associated with proper teacher education. Conceivably, teachers did not possess the skills to make accurate assessments of student behavior. Both studies from Gottfried, Le, & Datar (2016) and Niehaus & Adelson (2014), provided valuable longitudinal data on the effect of internalizing and externalizing behaviors on language acquisition they included additional variables such as parental involvement and kindergarten entry-age, that were not as useful for my specific topic. Finally, Waxman, Rivera, & Powers, (2012), found a correlation between externalizing behaviors (distraction) and lower reading scores but fell short when they used teacher nomination to identify students for study categories. This is especially worrisome because researchers suggested in the discussion that perhaps teachers don’t know their students well enough.
Self Confidence as a Mediator
Students that with higher levels of self-confidence and are more likely to acquire second language proficiency than students with low self-confidence (Diaz, Cochran, & Karlin, 2016; Guglielmi, 2012; Halle, Hair, Wandner, McNamara & Chien, 2011; Ingraham & Nuttall, 2016). Students with higher proficiency in their heritage language, thus higher self-confidence, performed better academically (Guglielmi, 2012). Conversely, students with weak heritage language proficiency had lower math and reading scores, and reported lower self-esteem in general (Halle et al., 2011). One key indicator of student success in language proficiency was confidence (Ingram & Nuttall, 2016). Students routinely took part in risk-taking events, such as contributing to an open-ended story, and developed confidence in their abilities to change and learn new things. A striking departure from this phenomenon is that when ELL’s performed similarly academically to their non-ELL counterparts, they still had a lowered self-perception of competence (Diaz, Cochran, & Karlin, 2016).
All four studies highlighted the role of self-confidence in academic achievement and second language proficiency; however, Ingram & Nuttall’s 2016 qualitative study presented the strongest evidence and examples of this effect. The champion mindset in an Arts Integration school revealed how ELL’s drew confidence from areas of strength to persevere in areas of weakness. A student who needs help in the classroom with writing draws upon his confidence on the stage, because he is a “master” of the stage. Confidence in interwoven in the fabric of this school; everyday interactions between students are governed by shared principles. Students are reminded to make eye contact when addressing each other because they have been taught it is an important way to demonstrate confidence and respect. This collective mindset allows students to navigate a new language with enthusiasm. Although this study adds depth to my claim that self-confidence is integral to second language acquisition, as with all qualitative studies generalization cannot be established. The population is merely one school and sample size is small. Additional research utilizing a larger sample is needed.
While both Guglielmi (2012) and Halle et al. (2011) quantitative studies offer larger sample sizes, 27,000 and 19,000 respectively, the former specifically examined math and science achievement of ELL’s and the latter did not address the level of English proficiency achieved. Finally, Diaz, Cochran, & Karlin’s (2016) mixed-methods study offered an ironic perspective that was in contrast to the previous research; however, it’s validity could not be confirmed because only the qualitative part of the study was included in the paper. For the purposes of my review all four articles add value but must be considered in context.
Environmental Factors: Emotional Scaffolding
Emotionally scaffolded instruction creates an optimal environment for ELL’s to acquire second language proficiency (Lopez, 2012; Park, 2014; Pereira & Gentry, 2013; Wilcox, 2013). Creating such an environment is intricate balance of combining emotion and cognition (Park, 2014). When teachers combine both aspects; the student not only communicates using language but also nonverbal language such as tone, facial expressions, gestures, and eye contact (Park, 2014; Wilcox, 2013). These nuances paint a picture of how the student is interpreting the content and their mental state. These non-verbal cues are especially important for ELL’s because they may not possess the language to express themselves sufficiently. For educators, staying cognizant of these emotions and their cues can have a powerful effect on improving learner engagement and confidence (Wilcox, 2013). Children with teachers who routinely respond to students with the highest need, thus demonstrating emotional cognizance, yield higher reading scores than students with less responsive teachers (Lopez, 2012). Additionally, the high-potential ELL’s in Periera and Genry (2013), noted that the most salient attributes of their instruction was the positive interactions with peers and teachers (e.g. academic engagement and feelings of being welcome).
Lopez (2012) provided the strongest argument for the implementation of emotional scaffolding of instruction and its benefits. The sample was large, 1041 participants in 4th and 5th grades, and included students who attended dual language immersion and dual bilingual education programs. This quantitative study contributed to the limited literature on socioemotional outcomes of ELL’s by finding that teachers emotional support in instruction is a key factor in reconciling educational disparities.
In contrast Park (2014), presented a descriptive qualitative study that supported the validity of emotional scaffolding, yet the sample was a mere 15 students that attended preschool. It is difficult to relate such findings when the characteristics of the sample are so limited. Both Pereira & Gentry, 2013; and Wilcox, 2013; offered high quality contributions to the literature by addressing the emotional supports of academically higher performing ELL’s; a population that needs additional inquiry.
Summary
The themes discovered throughout the literature review of socioemotional outcomes of ELL’s when acquiring a second language include: the internalizing and externalizing behaviors they often exhibit, self-confidence as a mediator of language acquisition, and the emotional climate of their instruction. Negative internalizing and externalizing behaviors frequently inhibit second language acquisition to the extent that students either withdraw from instruction or act out in ways that disrupt learning altogether. The student falls further and further behind which prompts more negative behaviors. In turn self-confidence is a mediator of second language acquisition. Students that feel more confident in themselves and excel in at least one area are more willing to take educational risks and don’t view failures as inhibiting. Finally, ELL’s that receive emotionally scaffolded instruction fare much better academically. Teachers that consider student emotional states as well as cognitive can elicit greater second language proficiency.
Discussion
The literature within this review is of high quality with primarily large sample sizes from relevant populations. Five of the thirteen studies gathered longitudinal data which allowed researchers to track participants over time. However, there are obvious limitations when dealing with qualitative research and the smaller sample sizes that come with it.
Socioemotional outcomes are not static entities and not easily categorized. The rich descriptive nature of the qualitative studies I have chosen, outweigh the limitations inherent in the methods. The be clear, the strength of the longitudinal samples does not negate the weakness of the purposive and snowball samples and cross-sectional designs of the studies included in this review, rather the value of the data must be viewed in context with the nature of my research topic. With that being said, it is difficult to extricate socioemotional outcomes from the environment in which they occur. Consequently, no causal relationships can be drawn and generalization to the broader population can not be made. Current research on socioemotional outcomes provides vital indications for the academic well-being of ELL’s attempting to master a second language. Further and continual research on this constantly changing population is needed.
Implications
The literature discussed within this review offers a glimpse into the socioemotional worlds of ELL’s. Examined collectively, a fuller picture of the optimal learning environment of ELL’s becomes evident. The research contends that the socioemotional outcomes for ELL’s plays a role in the development of second language acquisition and academic achievement in general. The implications for students and educators alike are immense. If social-emotional skills play a large role in the academic success of ELL’s then explicit and deliberate instruction in these skills would be a logical evolution of such knowledge. The factors outlined in this review provide a good starting point yet, additional research is needed to identify what are the most relevant socioemotional outcomes. Once this is established. resources can be allocated for support services. Further, teacher education and school induction programs must account for the special needs of this growing population. Specialized training is needed to properly serve such a diverse and changing population of ELL’s.
Suggestions for Future Research
Findings from the studies indicate that there is a lack of current research on specific social-emotional skills that directly affect academic achievement and second language acquisition. Further research is needed to identify the specific skills that are most pertinent to the ELL population. Additionally, some studies included in this review utilized either a self-nomination or teacher nomination process to categorize participants language proficiency or socioemotional traits, such as resilience. ELL’s have a propensity to underestimate their abilities and teachers bias may affect their decisions (Diaz, Cochran, & Karlin’s (2016). Further research should seek to eliminate this potential bias.
Finally, a majority of research included in this review examines ELL’s through a deficit model lens. The negative behaviors and less than positive environments are the ones under scrutiny. Research that examines the socioemotional outcomes and environments of high-achieving ELL’s and the circumstances under which they flourish may yield more significant data.
Reference
- Wilcox, K. (2013). A Socioecological view of higher-performing diverse elementary schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 18(2), 101-127. doi: 10.1080/10824669.2013.781845
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