Is Childhood Development Invariant Across Cultures?

Abstract

Culture has a major role in childhood development. Whilst all cultures teach more or less the same skills to children, certain skills are specific to some cultures. Within this literature review, the theories discussed illustrate the differences and similarities between cultures shown through cross-cultural studies, and how they can influence a child’s development. Thus, it is seen that childhood development differs between cultures, although all children go through the distinct developmental stages. This literature review will discuss the sense of childhood development and culture, as well as the contrast of cultures on child development stages.

Childhood is marked by important stages where the child changes drastically. Their first developmental shift occurs at about 2 months of age (Lewis, 2008). After years of research, Developmental Psychologists have found that the time spent by infants in the uterus has been associated with long-term outcomes. It has been noted by Jones et al., (1989) that pregnant women exposed to teratogens, environmental agents such as drugs and alcohol impacting an individual negatively during pregnancy, can give birth to physically impaired children. Parents around the world teach the same essential skills to their children whether it be talking or walking, however depending on the culture the child grows in, other skills can be taught. Consequently, childhood development is similar across cultures, although it is indeed variant as each culture will require different survival skills. After defining childhood development and culture, this literature review will review the relationship between both, and more precisely how cultures can influence childhood development through cross-cultural studies.

Childhood development is a period of time where children grow and learn to interact with other individuals with an aim to progress intellectually, socially, emotionally and acquire self-regulation skills (Black et al. 2016). Every child’s development is unique as they grow up in environments surrounded by a diverse group of people of different characteristics. In some cultures, educational toys are used while in others, children might learn from communication within their families. There are ways for children to learn a new language, learn how to read and walk, however these tricks differ between cultures. In some regions of the world, children are taught from a very young age how to do the dishes because all extra hands are needed for survival ; whilst in other countries, children won’t be taught those skills at such an early age. Thus, what is culture and how can it influence skill learning?

Two American anthropologists gave various definitions of culture, however many arose later on. Culture was defined as “patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behaviour acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups […] the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values” (Kroeber and Kluckhohn, 1952). Spencer-Oatey (2008) explained this concept as being “a fuzzed set of basic assumptions and values, orientations to life, beliefs, policies, procedures and behavioural conventions that are shared by a group of people, and that influence each member’s behaviour”. Children grow up in different cultures which influences them through the gender roles, race, socioeconomic status, ethnicity and interactions (Groark et al., 2014). Language development, between ages of 2 and 4, are linked to the relationships between adults and children which will impact the latter on the long term (Scarborough, 2001). Consequently, how can cultures influence childhood development as a whole ?

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Humans rely on their essential needs to survive being food, water and oxygen. These are termed biological processes, the essential needs for survival (Ferraro, 1998). Kluckhohn (1968) observed in Arizona that a woman was serving sandwiches to guests, filled with meat that seemed to be 'neither chicken nor tuna fish”. She refused to tell her guests what the meat was until after they ate it, but then told them they ate “freshly killed rattlesnakes”. Instinctively, the guests vomited because rattlesnake is primarily eaten in Oklahoma, therefore most individuals don’t have that embedded in their culture. This demonstrates the effects of cultureon individuals, and how digestion can be influenced. As culture influences biological processes, pain reflexes occur if a foreign body, whether we were aware of it or not, enters our bodies (Ferraro, 1998). A whole group of individuals would have been affected by this reflex as it takes at least two people to be able to share a culture and acting in accordance makes us part of it (Ferraro, 1998). Thus, culture influences children’s biological processes, yet how can it influence children’s mental representation?

The Social Development Theory formulated by Lev Vygotsky emphasises on the effect of culture and social factors in influencing the cognitive development of children. He says that social interactions influence largely the process of learning (Shaffiee, 2014). As part of a child’s development, learning a language allows to become part of a culture whilst influencing children’s thinking and problem solving (Schieffelin and Ochs, 1986). In American families, children are able to have a say in decisions and be part of discussions which help to enhance vocabulary, whilst in others, children are not expected to learn from their parents (Hart and Risley, 1995). A cross-cultural study was done by Fernald and Morikawa (1993) between Japanese and American children of between 6 months and 19 months old along with their parents. Each parent adapted to their children’s skill levels while talking to them. American parents focused on naming objects with their children, while Japanese parents discussed the polite sayings after exchanging objects.

From this, we can say that cultures will have different ways of teaching skills to their children. All healthy children have the ability to learn, however their culture will influence how fast they do. Moreover, children’s social-emotional development is impacted by cultures as they learn how to express themselves, how to manage feelings and how to have a healthy relationship with others (Cohen et al., 2005).

The impact of culture on social-emotional development has for long been observed. In some cultures, it is important for emotions to be manifested, while in others it is recommended to hide them. A study has shown that Japanese and Indian children are more group-oriented and collectivist, whilst Americans and Europeans value the success of each person as an independent individual (Garcia-Coll and Magnuson, 2000). Differences in the social rules of conversation influence children's' participation at school. Whilst, we encourage all children to participate, each culture will emphasise it in a different manner. Tharp (1989) observed Hawaiian children interrupting their peers while they speak to show interest in a conversation, while American Indian people wait some time before speaking. The waiting period influences the children negatively as they don’t participate as much. Furthermore, a study was done between babies from Cameroon Nso families and Germany (Keller, 2002). In the traditional rural farming families, children grow up helping their relatives take care of their homes (Keller et al., 2002). They are also required from 7 months of age to know how to walk in order to take on responsibilities from 1 year of age (Keller, 2007). This behaviour is considered as the norm for the Nso Farmer community, whilst it is considered as abnormal for the Western middle-class families as the German families let their babies learn how to walk naturally. Thus, the culture a child is born in will influence its social and emotional development and have an impact on the long- term.

Children’s development stages vary across cultures as there isn’t a unique way for a child to develop. Specific skills are learnt across all cultures, however they differ greatly which influences the child’s cognitive, social, emotional and physical development. Culture identity is a foreteller of a child’s development and outcomes. However, as we move forward in life and significant changes occur, certain cultures go through major changes in terms of what they believe is best for their children.

References

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